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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


457 


d^"  ^ 


^ 


OLD    TEMPLE    Or     VISHNU.    JANJGIR. 


CENTRAL   PROVINCES 


DISTRICT  GAZETTEERS 


V 


BILASPUR   DISTRICT 


VOLUME  A. 
DESCRIPTIVE. 


EDITED    BV 


A.  E.  NELSON,  Gazetteer  Superintendent, 


PRINTED  AT  THE  PIO.NEEKiPRESb 
ALLAHABAD 


igio 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


The  extant  Settlement  Reports  of  the  Bilaspur  District, 
which  have  been  used  in  the  compilation  of  this  volume,  are 
those  of  Mr.  W.  J.  Chisholm  (i86S)  and  of  Rai  Bahadur 
Purshottam  Das  (1891).  The  greater  portion  of  Chapters  I, 
III,  V,  and  VII  and  the  Appendix  (with  the  exception  of  the 
article  on  the  Zamlndaris)  has  been  written  by  Mr.  R.  V. 
Russell,  I.C.S.  The  History  Chapter  and  the  account  of 
Zamindaris  form  a  valuable  and  scholarly  contribution  from 
the  pen  of  Mr.  Wills,  I.C.S.  Mr.  Hance,  I.C.S.,  Settlement 
Officer,  has  supplied  the  Chapters  on  Agriculture  and  Land 
Revenue  Administration.  The  Chapter  on  General  Admi- 
nistration and  the  section  on  Minerals  have  been  contributed 
by  Mr.  Turner,  I.C.S.,  Deputy  Commissioner,  who  has  also 
read  and  corrected  the  whole  volume  in  proof.  The  account 
of  the  Leading  Families  is  based  on  notes  supplied  by  Mr.  S. 
Atmaram,  Extra  Assistant  Commissioner.  Mr.  Vredenburg 
of  the  Geological  Survey  is  responsible  for  the  section  on 
Geology.  Notes  on  Botany  and  Forests  have  been  supplied 
by  Rai  Bahadur  Mansukh  Rai  of  the  Forest  Department  and 
on  Wild  Animals  by  Mr.  Gilmore  of  the  same  Department; 
these  have  been  supplemented  and  revised  by  the  Hon.  J.  W. 
Best,  I.F'.S.  The  History  Chapter  and  the  notes  on  Castes  as 
usual  were  based  on  notes  compiled  by  Mr.  Hira  Lai,  Assis- 
tant Superintendent  of  Gazetteer. 


Nagpur :  \ 

\  A.  E.  N. 

loth  June    1909.     j 


BILASPUR 
DISTRICT  GAZETTEER. 


CONTENTS. 


Facing  page 


List  of    Deputy    Commissioners    who    have  held 

CHARGE  OF  THE  DiSTr'iCT 

Chapter  I.— GENERAL  DESCRIPTION. 

Boundaries  and  physical  features 

Geology 

Botany  ...  ... 

Wild  animals,  etc. 
Rainfall  and  climate 


Page 


1—8 

8—10 

10 — 14 

14—22 

22 — 24 


Chapter  II.— HISTORY  AND  ARCHEOLOGY. 


History 

Archaeology  ...  ... 

Chapter  III.— POPULATION. 

Statistics  of  population 

Religion 

Caste 

Social  life  and  customs 

Leading  families 

Chapter  IV.— AGRICULTURE. 
Soils 

Statistics  of  cultivation 
Crops 
Cattle 


25—61 
61—62 


,     63—72 

73—82 

,     82-98 

98  — III 

III — 126 


.•127—128 
..128—129 
..  129—144 
..144—146 


PARAGRAPH  INDEX. 


Chapter  I.— GENERAL  DESCRIPTION. 


Page 


Btnindaries  and  Physical  Features — 

1.  Constitution  of  the  new  District  ...  i 

2.  Hills                      ..  ...  ...  2 

3.  The  zamindari  estates  ...  ...  ib. 

4.  The  open  country  ...                    ..  ^ 

5.  Nature  of  soil     ...  ...  4 

6.  Rivers.      The  Mahanadi        ...  ...  5 

7.  The  Seonath  and  its  tributaries  ...  ib. 

8.  The  Hasdo           ..  ...  ...  6 

9    Floods                  ...  ...  ...  ib. 

10.  Elevations            ...  ...  ...  7 

Geology — 

1 1.  Geology              ...  ...  ...  8 

Botany — 

[2.  Trees                   ...  ...  ...  10 

13.  Shrubs  and  bamboos  ...       •  ...  14 

Wild  A  ninials,  etc.  — 

14.  Fauna                   ...  ...  ...  14 

15.  Birds                    ...  ...  20 

16.  Fish                      ...  ...  .  2\ 

Rainfall  and  Climate— 

17.  Rainfall                ...  ...  ...  22 

18.  Climate                ...  ...  ..  24 


Mil  PARAGRAPH    INOEX. 

CiiAPTiuII      HISTORY  AND  ARCH/EOLOGY. 

Page 

19    A  Hraliman  story                    ...  ...            25 

20.  Early  history.     The  Guptas  ...  ...           28 

21     The  Sirpur  dynasty                ...  ...            29 

■J2.  The  Shnrabhpur  dynasty       ...  ...            31 

23.  I  he  Haihayas     ...                   ...  .              i7k 

24.  Founding  of  Ratanpur           ...  ...            33 

25.  The  consoUdation  of  the  kingdom  ..             34 

26.  The  kings  of  Ratanpur          ...  ...            35 

27.  The  internal  administration  of  the  Haihaya 

kingdom          ...                  ...  ...            ^y 

2S.  The  Lhhaitisgarh                   ...  ...            39 

29.  The  official  hierarchy             ...  ...            41 

30.  1  he  close  of  the  Haihaya  rule  ...            45 

31.  I  he  Mnratha  conquest           ...  ...            47 

32.  Hinibaji  Bhonsla                      ...  ...            49 

33.  Sfibah  government                  ...  ...            51 

34.  The  Maratha  administration  ..  ...            /d. 

35.  British  Protectorate                ...  ...            56 

36.  Restoration  of  Native  Rule   ...  ...            59 

37.  Commencement  of  British  Rule  ...            z^. 
Ui/iiTolof;}' — 

38.  Architectural  remains            ...  ...           gj 

39.  Inscriptions         ...                  ...  ^i. 

Chapter  III.— POPULATION. 
^  t.iHstus  of  Population — 

40.  Recent  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the 

District 

41.  Changes  in  tahsll  areas 

42.  Density 

43.  Towns  and  villages 

44.  Movement  of  population 
45    M''.;ration 


63 
64 

65 
ib. 
66 
67 


PARAGRAPH    INDEX.  IX 

Page 

Statistics  of  Population — (contd.) 

46.  Cholera                ...  ...  ...  68 

47.  Small-pox  and  plague  ...  ...  tb. 

48.  Other  diseases     ...  ...  ...  69 

49.  Occupation          ...  ...  ...  7° 

50.  Language.     Chhattlsgarhl  ...  ...  ib. 

51.  Other  languages  ...  ...  72 

Religion — 

52.  Principal  statistics  ...  ...  7?) 

53.  Village  deities     ...  ...  ...  ib. 

54.  Village  gods — continued  ...  ...  74 

55.  Customs  connected  with  cultivation  ...  75 

56.  Agricultural  superstitions  ...  ...  jy 

57.  The  Kablrpanihi  sect  ...  ...  7^ 

58.  The  Kablrpanthi  Mahants  ...  ...  80 

59.  Members  of  the  sect  ...  ...  ib. 

60.  Customs  and  character  of  the  sect  ...  81 

61.  Christians            ...  ...  ...  82 

Caste — 

62.  General  remarks  ...  ...  82 

6'^.  Teli  and  Rawat  ...  ...  ...  83 

64.  Kurmi                  ...  .'..  ...  84 

65.  Bairagi  and  Gosain  ...  ...  ib. 

66.  Gond                    ...  ...  ..  86 

67.  Kawar                  ...  ...  .  ib. 

68.  Dhanvvar             ...  ...  ...  89 

69.  Bhaina                  ...  ...  ...  91 

70.  Sawara                 ...  ...  ...  ib. 

71.  Chamar                 ...  ...  ...  93 

72.  Marriage              ...  ...  ...  94 

73.  Death  and  religious  beliefs  ...  ...  95 

74.  Panka                  ...  ...  ...  c,6 

75.  Ghasia                  ...  ...  ...  97 

76.  Chauhan              ...  ...  ...  98 


lAKA'-UAI'ir     INDKX. 


Page 


Social  I.  iff  and  Customs — 

jj.  Marriage  customs 

98 

78    Widow-marriage 

100 

79.  Customs  at  birth... 

ib. 

80.   Devices  at  child  birth 

102 

81.  Disposal  of  the  dead 

103 

82.  OlTcrings  for  the  dead 

104 

83.  Mourning  and  laying  spirits  ... 

105 

84.  Return  of  the  soul 

106 

85.  Proverbs  and  riddles 

107 

86.  Village  names     ... 

108 

Leading  Families — 

'i'j.  General  notice    ... 

III 

88.  Bhotisla  families 

I  13 

89.  Maratha  Brahnians 

114 

90.  Chhattlsgarhl   Brahmans 

116 

91.   Bairagi  families  ... 

118 

92.   Rfiiput  families   ... 

119 

93    Bania  families     ... 

121 

94.  Tanwar  families... 

122 

95.  Gond  families 

124 

96.  Other  families.    ... 

125 

CH.'VPrER  IV.— AGRICULTURE. 

Soils  — 

97.  Soils 

127 

Statistics  of  Cultivation — 

98.  Statistics  of  cultivation 

128 

Crops— 

99.  Statistics  of  crops 

129 

100.  Methods  of  cultivation.     Rice 

101.  Irrigation 

130 
136 

>02.  Double-cropping 

103.  Kodon 
IC4    Wheat 

138 
139 

PARAGRAPH    INDEX.  XI 

Page 

Crops — (contd.) 

105.  Linseed,  castor  and  r^r/?/ pulses  ...  141 

106.  Sugarcane            ...                   ...  •••  "^• 

107.  Vegetables           ...                  ...  ...  I43 

Cattle — 

108.  Agricultural  cattle                    ...  ...  '44 

Chapte;^  v.— loans,  PRICES,  WAGES,  MANUFAC- 
TURES, TRADE  AND  COMMUNICATIONS. 

Loans — 

109.  Government  Loans                 ...  ...  147 

1 10.  Private  loans       ...                    ...  ...  149 

111.  Moneylenders      ...                  ...  ...  150 

112.  Transfers  of  landed  property  ...  ib. 

113.  Castes  of  proprietors              ...  ...  152 

114.  Tenants               ...                   ...  ...  153 

Prices — 

115.  Prices  in  past  years                ...  ...  154 

116.  Recent  rates        ...                   ...  ...  156 

117.  Miscellaneous  prices               ...  ...  157 

Wages — 

118.  Farm-servants     ...                   ...  ,..  157 

119    labourers            ...                  ...  ...  160 

120.  Village  servants  ...                  ...  ...  161 

Manufactures — 

121.  Tasar  silk             ...                   ...  ...  162 

122.  Breeding  of  the  silk  worm      ...  ...  163 

123.  Spinning  and  weaving  the  silk  ...  164 

124.  Cotton  cloth         ...                   ...  ...  166 

125    Metals  and  other  industries   ...  ...  ib. 

126.  Kota  match  factory                  ...  ...  167 

127.  Weights  and  measures           ...  ...  /^. 

128.  Markets               ...                  ...  .,.  jgs 

129.  Fairs                    ...                  ...  ...  169 


jjII  paragraph  indfx. 

Page 

Tradf — 

130.  Trade  in  past  years                ...                  •••  I7<^ 

131.  Rail-borne  trade.     Exports  of  grain        ...  172 

132.  Tiiiibcr  and  oilier  exports      ...                  ...  I75 

133    Imports                ...                  ••■                  ••'  176 

134.  Railway  stations                     ...                  ...  i77 

135.  Classes  engaged  in  trade       ...                  ...  ib. 

Co  mm II II  tea t ions — 

136.  Railways              ...                  ...                  ...  I73 

137.  The  old  trade  routes             ...                  ..,  ib. 

138.  Roads.     Railway  feeders       ...                  ...  179 

139.  Statistics  of  roads  and  carts  ...                  ...  181 

Chapter  VI.— FORESTS  AND  MINERALS. 

Forests — 

140.  Area  and  situation                 ...                  ...  182 

141.  Forest  ranges       ..                 ...                  ...  ib. 

142.  Character,  constitution  and  composition  of 

the  crop  with  respect  to   soils,  elevation 

and  rainfall      ...                  ...                   ...  183 

143.  Forest  produce  and  their  local  economical 

value                ...                 ...                 ...  ib. 

144.  Minor  produce    ...                  ...                  ...  184 

145.  Past  and  present  system  of  forest  manage- 

ment                ...                 ...                  ...  ib, 

146    Grazing               ...                  ...                  ...  185 

•  47.  Fire  protection  ...                 ...                  ...  186 

148.  Receipts  and  Expenditure      ..                   ...  ib. 

149.  Private  forests.     Area  and  situation         ...  187 

1 50.  Character  of  the  forests  and  nature  of  the 

country             ...                  ...                    .  ^b. 

151.  Private  rights  in  zamlndari  forests            ...  188 

152.  Sub-proprietors  ...                  ...                  ...  jSq 

153.  Government  control  of  zamlndari  forests...  ib. 
154    Roadside  arboriculture           ...  loi 


PARAGRAPH    INDEX. 


Xlll 


Minerals — 

155.  Minerals 

Chapter  VII.— FAMINE. 

156.  Early  famines 

157.  Other  bad  seasons 

158.  Seasons  prior  to  1897 

159.  The  famine  of  1897 

160.  Statistics  of  the  famine 
J  61.  The  years  1898  and  1899 

162.  The  famine  of  1900 

163.  Statistics  of  the  famine 

164.  Subsequent  seasons 

165.  General  remarks  on  famine 
Chapter  VIII.— LAND  REVENUE 

166.  Early  revenue  history 

167.  Collection  of  revenue 

168.  Mode  of  increase 

169.  Balances 

170.  Kamaishdars'  tours 

171.  Subahdar's  visits 

172.  His  accounts 

173.  Procedure  with  the  people 

174.  His  responsibility 

175.  Apportionment  of  the  village  assessment... 

176.  Modifications  by  British  regency    and  sub- 

sequent settlements  until  1868 
J 77.  The  first  regular  settlement  ... 

178.  Revision  of  revenue  assessment 

179.  The  zamlndari  settlement 

180.  The  tahuts 

181.  The  second  regular  settlement 

182.  The  zamlndaris  ... 

183.  Revenue  demand  and  cesses  of  the  District 

184.  Subsequent  events  of  importance 


Page 
191 

194 

195 
196 

ib. 
198 

ib. 
199 
200 
201 
202 
ADMINISTRATION. 
204 
206 

ib. 
207 
208 

ib. 
209 

ib. 
210 

ib. 

212 
213 
214 

215 
216 
217 
219 

220 
ih. 


t  I'AKAf.RAPH    INDEX. 

Page 
CiiAmH  IX.-GKNKKAL  ADMINISTRATION. 

185.  Administrative  Staff  ...  ...  223 

l8f.    I.aml  Kcconl  Staff  ...  ...  224 

187.  Crime                   ...  •••  •••  227 

188.  Civil  litigation     ...  ...  ...  228 

189.  Registration        ...  ...  ...  229 

190.  Statistics  of  revenue  ...  ...  230 

191.  Excise                  ...  ...  ...  ib. 

192.  Foreign  and  country  liquor   ...  ...  231 

193.  Opium                  ...  ...  ...  234 

194.  Ganja  and  bhang  ...  ...  ih. 

195.  Stamps                ...  ...  ...  236 

196.  Municipalities     ...  ...  ...  ib. 

197.  District  Council  ...  ...  ...  238 

198.  Village  Sanitation  ...  ...  241 

199.  District  Sanitary  Board  ...  ...  ib. 

200.  Public  Works     ...  ...  ...  242 

201.  Irrigation             ...  ...  ...  243 

202.  Police                   ...  ...  ...  ib. 

203.  Kotwars               ...  ...  ...  244 

204    Jail                        ...  ..  ...  245 

205.  Education            ...  ...  ...  246 

206.  Medical                 ...  ...  ..  248 

207-   Vaccination          ...  ...  ,..  2 Co 

208.  \'eterinary  dispensary  ...  ...  2c i 


PARAGRAPH    INDEX.  XV 

Appendix.— GAZEXrEER  OF  TAHSILS,  ZAMINDARIS, 

TOWNS,   IMPORTANT    VILLAGES,    RIVERS 

AND  HILLS. 

Page 

Name  of  place — 

Adbhar   ...                   ...  ...  •••  255 

Agar  River                 ...  •••  •••  ^^• 

Akaltara                       ...  ...  •••  ^^• 

Arpa  River                 ...  ...  •••  250 

Baloda    ...                  ...  ...  •••  ^''''• 

Bamhnidlh                  ...  ...  ...  257 

Belpan     .                    ...  ...  ••.  2^- 

Pilaspur  Tahsl            ...  ...  ...  ^^• 

Bilaspur  Town           ...  ...  ..•  260 

Bisesara                       ...  ...  •  •••  '^^Z 

Champa  Zamlndari   ...  ...  ...  264 

Champa  Village          ...  ...  •••  ^^• 

Chhuri  Zamlndari      ...  ...  •••  ^^• 

Chhuri  Village            ...  ...  ...  ^b. 

Dhanpur                       ...  ...  ...  265 

Ganiari   ...                   ...  ...  ...  266 

Gatora    ...                   ...  ...  ...  ib. 

Ghutku   ...                   ...  ...  ...  ib. 

Hanp  River                ...  ...  ...  267 

Hasdo  River              ...  ,.,  ...  ib. 

Janjgir  Tahsll            ...  ,..  ...  ib. 

Janjgir  Village           ...  ...  ...  271 

Kanteli  Zamlndari     ...  ...  ...  272 

Kenda  Zamlndari      ...  ...  ...  ib. 

Kharod   ...                   ...  ...  ...  ib. 

Korba  Zamlndari       ...  ...  ...  273 

Kota        ...                   ...  ...  ...  ib. 

Kotgarh  ...                   ...  ...  ...  ib. 

Kotmi      ..,                   ...  ...  ...  274 

Kudarmal                     ...  ...  ...  ib. 

Lapha  Zamlndari      ...  ...  ...  ib. 


Xvl  I'ARAGRAPH    INDEX. 

Page 
SUuHf  0/ />/(ur  —{conld.) 

L.ipliagarh  ...  .-  •••  274 

Lilagar  Kivcr  ...  ...  •••  275 

Mali.'iinadpur  ...  ..  •••  ^^• 

Malianadi  River  ...  ■•■  ••■  ^'^• 

Maikal  Hill  ...  ...  ■••  278 

Mallar     ...  ...  ...  -•  280 

MaiiiTui  River  ...  ...  ...  ^b- 

Manikpur  ...  ...  .-•  281 

Maiin  ZainindAri  ..  ...  ...  tb. 

Mungeli    rahsil  ...  ...  ...  tb. 

Muiigeli  Town  ...  ...  ...  285 

Nawagarli  ...  ...  ...  286 

Pali  ...  ...  zb. 

Paudaria  Zamhidari  ...  ...  ...  zb. 

Fandaria  \'illage  ...  ...  ...  287 

I'andatarai  ...  ...  ...  zb. 

I^endra  Zainindari  ...  ...  ...  /b. 

Pendra  Village  ...  ...  ...  ^^. 

IMliampur  ...  ..^  ...  288 

Rataiipur  ...  ...  ^  /^ 

Salkhan  ...  ...  ...  ^^_  2qi 

Salpura  Hills  ...  ...  ^  ^^ 

Sconalli  River  ...  _^  20-7 

Scorinarayan  ...  o^. 

Son  River  ...  ^^r. 

Takhatpur  ...         •  .^^  _  298 

z'b. 
299 

zb. 
312 
314 
317 
318 
321 


luiiuui 

Uprora  Zamindari     ... 

Zamindaris 

Champa 

Chhuri 

Kaiiteli 

Kenda 

Korba 


PARAGRAPH    INDEX. 


XVll 


Page 


Name  oj  place — (concld.) 

Lapha 

324 

Matin 

327 

Pandaiia 

33> 

Pendra 

3^4 

Uprora 

339 

List  of  Deputy  Coniniissiojters  zuho  have  held  charge  of  the 
Bildspiir  District. 


Names. 

Pt.RlOD. 

From 

To 

Mr.  J.  VV.  Chisholm 

1-4-64 

3-2-67 

Captain  T.  Wakefield 

4-2-67 

12-7-67 

Colonel  H.   I.  Lugard 

13-7-67 

22-12-67 

Colonel  W.  B.  Thomson 

23-12-67 

23-4-69 

Captain  J.  Ducat 

24-4-69 

S-io-70 

Mr.  W.  L.  Noverre 

9-10-70 

29-10-70 

Mr.  J.  F.  Beddy 

30-10-70 

31-8-73 

Mr.  G.  J.  Nicholls 

1-9-73 

4-1-7-^ 

Colonel  A.  Bloom  field 

5-1-74 

29-5-75 

Colonel  T.  A.  Scott 

30-5-75 

18-1-76 

Colonel  J.  Ashburner 

1 9- 1 -76 

8-2-77 

Colonel  T.  A.  Scott 

9-2-77 

25-4-77 

Colonel  W.  S.  Brooke 

26-4-77 

3-1-80 

Mr.  T.  E    Ellison 

4-1-80 

28-5-80 

Mr.  J.  P.  Goodridge 

29-5-80 

I -4-8 1 

Colonel  W.  Vertue 

2-4-8 1 

31-10-84 

Mr.  L.  S.  Carey 

i-n-84 

5-11-84 

Mr.  J.  P    Goodridge 

6-1 1-84 

15-11-84 

Mr.  T.  E.  Ellison 

16-11-84 

21-2-85 

Mr.  F.  A.  T.  Phillips 

22-2-85 

24-11-85 

Mr.  T.  E.  Ellison 

25-11-85 

10-5-87 

Mr.  D.  O.  Meiklejohn 

1 1-5-87 

30-6-90 

Mr.  j.  A.  C.  Skinner 

1-7-90 

I -10-90 

Mr.  b.  O.  Meil<lejohn 

2-10-90 

16-12-91 

Mr.  A.  S.   Womack 

17-12-91 

5-4-92 

Mr.  R.  A.  B    Chapman 

6-4-92 

13-7-92 

Mr.  A.  S.  Womack 

14-7-92 

12-5-93 

Mr.  R.  A.  B.  Chapman 

13-5-93 

2-1 1-93 

Mr.  A.  S.  Womack 

3-1 1-93 

5-10-96 

Mr.  L.  E.  P.   Gaskin 

6-10-96 

16-11-96 

Mr    F.  J    Cooke 

17-11-96 

1          14-9-98 

Mr.  F.  C.  Turner 

1 5-9-98 

24-1 1-98 

Mr.  R.  V.  Russell 

25-11-98 

28-1 1-99 

Mr.  H.  F.  Mayes 

29-11-99 

7-3-01 

Mr.  F.  C.  Turner 

8-3-01 

27-1 1-Ol 

Mr.  C.  W.  E.  Montgomerie... 

28-1 I-OI 

24-4-05 

Mr.  P.  S.  Patuck 

25-4-05 

22-12-05 

Mr.  F.  C.  Turner 

23-12-05 

up  to  date 

./*.,.  j,i.l<^ 


^  »- 


N' 


<> 


M-J^ 


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.-/. 


^ 


BILASPUR  DISTRICT. 


CHAPTER  I. 
GENERAL  DESCRIPTION. 

BOUiNDARIES  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

I.  Tlie  Bilaspur  District    belongs    to    the    Chhattlsgarh 
Division  of  the  Central    Provinces,  and 

Constitution     of     the       •         w       *    j     u    .  ».o   --/         i         o      / 

new  District.  '^  Situated    between   21"  n  and  2f  7 

N.    and    81''  12' and    83°  40'  E.     The 

District   occupies  the  northern  portion  of  the    Chhattlsgarh 

plain  or  upper  basin  of   the  Mahanadi,  and   includes    also  a 

large    tract    of  hilly    country    to    the    north.     In    1906    the 

constitution  of  Bilaspur  was  entirely  altered  by  the  formation 

of  the  new  Drug  District,  to  which  the  south-western  portion 

of  the  Mungeli  tahsil  was  transferred.     At  the  same  time  the 

part  of  the  District  lying  to  the  south  of  the  Mahanadi  and  the 

Tarenga  estate  to  the  south  of  the  Seonath  were  transferred  to 

the  Raipur  District.    On  the  cession  of  the  Sambalpur  District 

to  Bengal  in  1905,  the  Chandai  pur-Padampur  and  Malkharoda 

estates  were  transferred  to  Bilaspur.     Prior  to  these  changes 

the  area  of  the  District  was  8341    square    miles    and    it  was 

reduced  by  them   to  7602  square  miles.     It  remains  the   third 

District    in  the   combined   Provinces  in  point  of  area  and  the 

second  in  population.     The  greatest  length  from  Pandaria  on 

the  west  through  Bilaspur  to  Padampur  on  the   east  is    about 

190  miles  and  the   width  from  north  to  south  about  80  miles. 

The  District  is  divided  into  three  tahsils  of  which  Mungeli  lies 

to  the  west,  Bilaspur  in  the  centre  and  Janjgir  to  the  east.     It 

is  bounded  on    the  north    by   the   Rewah  State    of  Central 

India,  and  those  of  Korea  and  Surguja  now  belonging  to  the 

Central  Provinces  ;  on  the  east  by  the  Udaipur,  .Sakti,  Raigarh 

and  Gangpur   States ;     on    the    south    by    Sambalpur,     the 


2  Itll  ASPtlR.       r.f-NERAL    DESCRIPTION. 

Sar.-ingaili  Stale  and  the  Kaipui-  and  Drug  Districts  ;    and   on 
ihc  west  by  Kawaidliu  State  and  the  Mandla  District. 

2.  I'o  lt>c  north,  west  and  east  the  Bilaspur  District  is 

enclosed  by  ranges  of  hills,  while  the 
southern  border  is  generally  open  and 
accessible  and  is  marked  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length  by 
the  Mahanadi  and  Seonath  rivers.  'Ihc  Maikal  range  or 
outer  wall  of  the  Satpuras  runs  from  north-east  to  south- 
west along  the  border,  from  the  peak  of  Amarkantak  in 
Rcwah  Slate  to  the  Saletckri  l)ills  of  Balaghat.  This  range 
cuhninaling  at  Amarkantak  is  held  to  be  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  Satpura  system  and  from  here  after  a  short  break  of 
plateau  land  irregular  ranges  of  hills,  which  are  not  consi- 
dered to  belong  either  to  the  Vindhyas  or  Satpuras,  run  east- 
wards leading  to  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau.  On  the  eastern 
border  the  Sakti  hills  lead  almost  down  to  the  Mahanadi,  thus 
completing  the  semi-circular  chain,  by  which  the  wide  plain 
country  is  surrounded.  The  northern  hills  run  along  the 
whole  face  of  the  plain,  sometimes  thrusting  forth  an  arm  or 
throwing  out  an  isolated  peak  and  advancing  boldly  into  the 
level  country,  sometimes  receding  into  deep  hollows  and 
bays  usually  covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation.  In  their 
whole  extent  they  cover  an  area  of  4500  square  miles,  while 
the  open  plain  extends  roughly  over  3000. 

3.  The   hilly    country    is    generally    parcelled  out    into 
Thezaminda.iesta.es.      ^^"^'"^^ri   estates    held   by    hereditary 

chiefs.  Of  these  the  District  contains 
ten  altogether,  but  two  of  them.  Madanpur-Kanteli  and 
Ch.impa,  lie  embedded  in  the  open  country.  On  the  other  hand 
the  large  reserved  forest  of  Lormi  belongs  to  the  hills.  The 
most  northern  zamindaris  are  those  of  Pendra,  Matin  and 
Uprora.  Of  these  Pendra  is  the  largest  and  lies  on  the  plateau 
between  the  Maikal  range  and  those  to  the  east.  It  presents  a 
vancd  aspect  of  hill  and  dale,  consisting  partly  of  dense  forest 
and  partly  of  open  populated  country.  The  plateau  is  about 
2CXX)  feet  high  and  the  climate  considerably  cooler  thsn  that 


BOUNDARIES    AND   PHYSICAL    FEATURES.  3 

of  the  plain,  while  the  tract  belongs  both  by  situation  and 
population  rather  to  the  Jubbulpore  country  than  to  Chhattis- 
garh.  Matin  and  Uprora  are  comprised  in  the  most  rugged 
country  of  the  eastern  hill  ranges,  and  are  almost  covered  with 
forest,  the  villages  consisting  only  of  groups  of  scattered  huts, 
readily  abandoned  on  the  presence  in  the  vicinity  of  a  man- 
eating  tiger  or  panther,  or  the  outbreak  of  an  epidemic. 
Matin  has  only  22  persons  to  the  square  mile  and  Uprora  14. 
'This,'    Chisholm  wrote  forty    years    ago,    'is    perhaps    the 

*  wildest    country  of   Chhattlsgarh,   and   here  it  is    tiiat  the 

*  shattered    forest    trees,   the    broken    and    crushed    bamboo 

*  clumps,  the  hollows  and  foot-prints  in  a  hundred  marshes 
'  and  water-courses  indicate  the  presence  of  wild  elephants. ' 
There  are  still  a  few  elephants  to  be  found  in  these  estates 
specially  in  the  rainy  season.  South  of  these  four  estates 
lie  those  of  Kenda,  Lapha,  Chhuri  and  Korba  which,  while 
consisting  largely  of  hill  and  forest,  have  yet  with  the 
exception  of  Lapha  fair  stretches  of  open  country.  The 
important  Korba  zamlndari  covers  the  north-eastern  cornet* 
of  the  District.  To  the  west  the  Pandaria  zamlndari  con- 
sists also  of  a  large  open  tract  adjoining  the  Mungell  tahsll, 
flanked  by  forest-clad  hills  of  the  Maikal  range  extending 
to  the  Mandla  border.  The  large  and  compact  block  of 
Government  forest  known  as  the  Lormi  reserve,  consisting 
of  410  square  miles  and  extending  to  the  border  of  the 
District,  separates  Pandaria  on  the  west  from  Kenda  on 
the  east.  The  bulk  of  the  forest  is  included  in  this  reserve 
but  other  small  patches  lie  below  the  Korba  hills. ' 

4.  The  open  country    is  an  undulating  plain   intersected 
by  a  series  of  convergent  streams    all 

The  open  country. 

ultimately  tributary  to  the  Mahanadi. 
The  watersheds  between  each  pair  of  streams  are  formed 
by  well-marked  rises  which  as  one  passes  from  west  to  east 
develop  into  pronounced  ridges.  In  the  Mungell  tahsll 
the  watersheds  are  more  level  than  in  the  Bilaspur  and 
Janjgir  tahsils  and  on  their  flanks  contain   stretches    of   level 


4  BILASPUR.       GKNKRAL    DKS(  KlI'TION. 

black  clay  soil,  and  even  on  the  very  crests  of  the  rises  the 
soil  is  rarely  too  poor  to  grow  wheat.  In  ilie  Bilaspur  and 
Janjgir  tahsils  the  ridges  are  more  pronounced  and  on 
their  crests  the  ground  is  often  Httle  more  than  sandy  gravel 
which  improves  into  culturable  land  as  the  slope  is  descended. 
There  are  few  of  the  level  stretches  of  soil  which  are  found 
in  the  most  fertile  tracts  of  Mungeli  and  the  streams  which 
mark  the  foot  of  each  watershed  flow  directly  at  its  feet 
instead  of,  as  in  Mungeli,  being  separated  from  the  crest  of 
Mie  rise  by  intervening  expanses  of  level  land.  The  plain 
is  thickly  populated  and  closely  cultivated,  and  the  open 
country  as  viewed  from  some  such  vantage  point  as  the 
Dalha  hill  near  Bilaspur  presents  an  absolutely  level 
appearance  and  is  dotted  with  villages  easily  distinguishable 
in  the  landscape,  even  when  their  huts  are  hidden  from  view, 
by  the  tanks  in  their  vicinity,  the  waters  of  which  sparkle 
in  the  sunlight,  or  the  groves  of  mango,  pJpal  and  tamarind 
trees,  which  cluster  round  the  villages  and  break  the  dull 
monotony  of  the  plain.  But  except  for  the  village  groves 
trees  arc  very  scarce.  In  the  cold  weather  when  the  plain 
is  usually  visited  the  surface  is  an  expanse  of  yellow  stubble, 
standing  crops  being  practically  absent,  and  already  pre- 
sents a  bare  and  dry  appearance.  During  the  rains  how- 
ever when  the  flooded  fields  are  heavy  with  rice,  and  the 
green  surface  changes  in  hue  as  it  reflects  the  shadows  of  the 
passing  clouds,  with  the  darker  green  of  the  forests  covering 
the  hilly  background,   the   prospect  is  beautiful  enough. 

5.    The  western  part  of  tlie  District  is  mainly  a  black  soil 

N-,u.cof>o.i.  ^'''^^'    ^^'^    ^^'^     '^^'"g    foi-med,    it    has 

been  suggested,  from  disintegrated  trap 
rock  carried  down  by  the  rivers  from  the  Maikal  or  Satpura 
hills.  Here  rice  is  not  all-important  and  a  considerable 
area  is  devuted  to  wheat  and  other  cold  weather  crops 
allcM.aling  will,  kodon.  Second  crops  are  also  sown  among 
thcbiaiidmg  lice  and  when  the  rainfall  is  favourable  give 
a  good  yield      In  the  centre  and  east  red  soil  supposed  to 


BOUNDARIES    AND    PHYSICAL    FEATURES.  5 

be  formed  from  tlie  Vindhyan  sandstone  or  the  Gondwana 
rocks  of  Korba  is  prevalent,  and  is  unsuited  to  cold  weatlier 
crops,  though  when  assisted  by  water  and  manure  it  yields 
excellent  harvests  of  rice. 

6.  Tlie  drainage  system  of  the   District  centres   in  the    • 

Mahanadi,  and  the  rivers    and  streams 

Rivers.      Tlie  Mal\aiiadi. 

which  flow  to  it  generally  rise  in  the 
northern  and  western  hills  and  pursue  a  southerly  and  easterly 
course.  The  nortliern  hills  are  however  an  important  water- 
shed and  two  great  rivers,  tlie  Nerbudda  and  the  Son,  take 
their  rise  in  them  and  flow  west  and  north.  But  these  have 
practically  no  influence  on  the  drainage  system  of  Bilaspur. 
The  Mahanadi  does  not  flow  through  the  District  but  forms 
its  southern  boundary  for  a  length  of  about  40  miles.  In 
Bilaspur  its  bed  is  open  and  sandy  and  the  banks  usually 
low,  bare  and  unattractive.  In  the  rains  the  appeal  ance  of 
the  river  is  magnificent,  its  width  extending  over  a  mile. 
But  in  the  hot  weather  months  it  is  nothing  more  than  a 
shallow  and  narrow  channel  in  a  vast  expanse  of  sand,  and  is 
then  at  almost  any  point  forded  with  ease.  It  is  navigable  for 
six  months  from  Seorinarayan  to  the  coast,  but  the  frequency 
of  rocky  barriers  lower  in  its  course  renders  transit  difficult, 
and  since  the  construction  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway 
the  traffic  has  become  insignificant. 

7.  The   most  important   tributaries  of  the  Mahanadi  are 

the  Seonath  and  the  Hasdo.    Tlie  Seo- 
Tlie    Seonath  and    its  _,,       1         j  ,  o  1  i 

tributaries.  nsLih  also  does   not  now  flow  through 

the    District,    but    forms   its    southern 

border  for    nearly    40    miles    prior  to  its  junction    with   the 

Mahanadi.     It  is  navigable  in  the  rains  up  to  Nandghat.     A 

large  number  of  streams  rise  in  the    western  hills  and  pursue 

an  almost  parallel  south-easterly    course,  to  a  junction    with 

the    Seonath.     Among  these   the  Hanp  rises  in  the  Pandaria 

hills  and  traversing    Pandaria    and  Mungeli   passes   into   the 

Drug  District  and  joins  the  Seonath    near  Nandghat.     The 

Sukri  and  Phonk  are    tributaries  of  the  Hanp   on    the  w^est. 


6  DILASPUR.      GENERAL    DESCRIPTION. 

The  Maniari  rises  in  the  Lormi  hills  and  flows  south  by  east 
post  Lormi  and  lakhatpur,  forming  for  a  great  part  of  its 
course  the  jjoundary  between  the  Bilaspur  and  Mungell 
talisils.  li  meets  the  Seonatii  about  two  miles  above  the 
railway  bridge  over  the  latter  river  and  is  crossed  by  the 
Kaipur-Hil.ispur  road  shortly  before  its  junction.  The  Teswa 
ami  Agar  are  tril)utaries  of  the  Maniari,  the  Agar  passing 
Mungell  town.  Tlie  Arpa  rises  on  the  Pendra  plateau,  and, 
after  a  long  and  picturesque  course  through  wooded  hills  and 
valleys,  enters  the  plain  of  Hilaspur,  and  skirting  Bilaspur 
town  falls  into  the  Seonalh  near  Bartori.  The  Kharun  is  an 
eastern  tributary  of  the  Arpa.  llie  Lilagar  rising  in  Korba 
flows  to  the  south,  forming  the  boundary  between  the  Bilas- 
pur and  Janjgir  tahsils  and  falls  into  the  Seonath  just  prior 
to  its  junction  with  the  Mahanadi. 

8.  The  Hasdo  is  the  principal  river  of  the  east  of  the  Dis- 

trict.   It  enters  the  District  from  Korea 

The  llasdo. 

State  and,  after  a  wild  and  picturesque 
course  through  the  rocky  gorges  of  Matin  and  Uprora, 
traverses  Clihuri  and  Korba  and  debouching  into  the  plain 
passes  tiirough  Champa  zamlndari  and  joins  the  Mahanadi 
eight  miles  east  of  Seorlnarayan.  Its  best  known  tributary 
is  the  Jatashankari  or  Ahiran  river  remarkable  for  its  even 
sandy  bed ;  it  rises  near  the  Lapha  fort  and  joins  the 
Hasdo  by  Korba  Klids.  Boats  occasionally  ply  on  the 
Hasdo  in  the  rains  up  to  Champa.  Its  bed  is  deceptive  and 
is  full  of  quicksands,  so  that  at  all  seasons  it  is  necessary 
to  adhere  strictly  to  the  regular  crossings. 

9.  The  rivers  of  the  District,  especially  the  Mahanadi, 
pj^jjjg  with  which  almost  all  the  other  rivers 

of  the  District  are  connected,  are  liable 
to  sudden  floods  when  a  vast  volume  of  water  is  formed  often 
submerging  the  low-lying  land  in  its  vicinity  and  presenting 
the  appearance  of  a  large  inland  sea.  The  most  memor- 
able  flood— that  of  the  Mahanadi— occurred  about  75  years^ 
*  In  Samvat  i8yi  in  the  month  of  Kunwai. 


BOUNDARIES   AND    PHYSICAL    FEATURES.  f 

ago  and  is  known  as  BaiJid  piira  or  '  Mad  flood.'  It  extended 
for  miles  washing  away  numerous  villages  and  causing  great 
loss  of  life  and  property  and  did  not  subside  for  three  days. 
The  scenes  described  are  most  pathetic  and  in  some  cases 
dramatic ;  some  families  resigning  themselves  to  fate  were 
seen  floating  on  chappars  (roofs)  of  their  houses,  singing  to 
the  music  of  the  brass  plates,  perhaps  their  most  valuable 
properly,  which  they  had  not  forgotten  to  take  with  them 
even  in  their  hour  of  distress.  The  record  of  this  flood  is 
maintained  in  a  verse  inscribed  on  a  pillar  of  Koteshwar 
temple  at  Rajim.  built  at  the  junction  of  the  Mahanadi  and 
Pairi  rivers,  by  a  sddhu  who  remained  inside  the  flooded 
area  for  three  days,  clinging  to  the  top  of  the  tree  growing' 
on  the  platform  of  the  temple.  Another  flood  smaller  in 
magnitude  occurred  in  the  year  1885  and  washed  away  the 
tahsil  office  at  Seorinarayan,  which  was  partly  the  cause  of 
the  removal  of  the  headquarters  of  the  tahsil  to  Janjgir. 
The  people  of  Seorinarayan  saved  their  lives  by  climbing  to 
the  tops  of  temples.  The  floods  of  smaller  rivers  such  as 
that  of  the  Arpa  which  submerged  the  Bilaspur  town  in  1882, 
of  the  Seonath  which  washed  away  villages  and  caused  loss 
of  cattle  and  other  animals  in  1891  92,  of  the  Agar  which 
inundated  Mungell  in  the  year  1900,  are  also  locally  remem- 
bered. 

10.  In  the  plain    portion  of  the  khdlsa  area  of  the   Dis- 
trict,  which  opens  on   the  south  upon 
Llevations. 

the  plains  of  Raipur  and  is  surrounded 

on  all  other  sides  by  tiers  of  hills,  the  highest  points  are 
the  isolated  peaks  of  Sonthi  and  Dalha  with  elevations 
of  2649  f^et  and  2447  feet  respectively  above  sea-level. 
The  level  of  the  plain  country  decreases  from  about  1000 
feet  in  the  west  of  the  Mungell  tahsil  to  750  at  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  the  District.  Bilaspur  town  itself 
stands  at  an  elevation  of  853  feet  and  the  Bilaspur  court 
house  at  an  elevation  of  888  feet.  To  the  north  of  Bilas- 
pur, Ratanpur  is  993  feet  and    Bitkuli   827  feet  and   to  the 


HI 


I.ASPUR.       GFNERAL    DESCRIPTION. 


SOU 


ih  Gataui-.i  913,  Hodii  942.  Nipania  railway  station  850 
and  Kanc.-i  851.  In  ihc  Mungcli  tahsil  the  Kathar  hill 
6  miles  north-east  oi  Lormi  is  the  highast  point  with  an 
elevation  of  2280  feet.  Lormi,  Lilapur,  Setganga  and 
Dasrangpur  in  liic  same  tahsil  have  elevations  of  1114, 
1015,  985  and  999  feet  respectively.  In  the  Janjgir  tahsil 
the  hills  of  Jogia  and  Paria  are  ill 3  and  1003  feet  high 
respectively  ;  while  the  villages  of  Baraduar  and  Saragaon 
to  the  east  of  Janjgir  are  851  and  827  feet  respectively  and 
to  the  south  Jaijaipur,  Rasota  and  Dongakahrod  have 
elevations  of  807,  842  and  860  feet.  The  northern  portion 
of  the  District  is  wild  and  hilly  country  included  in  various 
zamindaris.  In  tlie  east  of  this  tract  the  highest  points  are 
Bijorfi  hill  3346  feet,  Mahadeo  3246  feet,  Manguru  3053  feet 
and  Rikhi  2825  feet  in  Uprora  zamindari  ;  and  Karela  3322 
feet,  Simkide  3128,  Gaurduari  3250,  Panakra  3222,  Ritrahi 
2865,  Kumra  2S36  and  Dhanian  2878  in  Korba  zamin- 
dari. In  the  central  portion  of  the  zamindari  tract  the 
prominent  elevations  are  Gidhaora  2853,  Makua  2775  and 
Matin  2315  in  Matin  zamindari,  Kekril  2826  in  Kenda 
zamindari  and  Palma  3431,  Rani  2964  and  Dhitori  3041  in 
Laplia  zamindari.  The  Chitaurgarh  also  known  as  Lapha- 
garh  hill  in  Lapha  zamindari  is  3244  feet  high  and  at  one 
time  occupied  a  very  important  position.  In  the  western 
tract  the  hill  station  of  Lllawani  attains  3696,  the  highest 
point  in  the  whole  District,  Barabahar  2924,  Gorapahar 
2824,  all  in  Pendra  zamindari,  and  Kundwani  3041  and 
Chhuighat  2919  feet  in  Pandaria  zamindari.  Besides  the 
above  there  are  many  other  places  in  the  northern  portion  of 
the  District  whose  elevations  vary  between  1500  and  2500 
feet. 

GEOLOGY. 

11.  From  a  geological   point  of  view  the  Bilaspur  Dis- 

„  trict  is   divided  into  two  portions  of 

contrasted   constitution.     There  is  a 

southern  belt  running  east  by    south  to  west  by  north,  with 


GFOLOGY.  9 

an  average  width  of  20  miles  forming  a  very  flat  area   at  an 
average  altitude  of  about  looo  feet.     North  of  this  flat  region 
the  country  is  very  hilly  with  peaks  exceeding  3000  feet,  that 
is  more  than  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  southern     plain. 
The    southern    flat  area  is  occupied    by    horizontal    or 
gently  dipping  purple  shales  and  limestones  belonging  to  the 
Raipur  series,  a  member  of  the  Kadapah  system  of  Algonkian 
age.^      These  rocks  mostly  concealed  by  alluvial  and  lateritic 
deposits  constitute  a  portion  of  the  extensive  flat   expanse 
known  as  the  Chhattlsgarh  basin  which,  besides  the  southern 
part  of  Bilaspur  District,  occupies  a  considerable  portion  of 
the   Raipur  and   Drug  Districts.      Raipur   shales   and    lime- 
stones prevail  throughout  this  area.     It  is  only  along  a  nar- 
row   discontinuous    belt    bordering   their    outcrop    that    the 
*  Chandarpur  sandstones,'  that  is   the  basal  members  under- 
lying the   Raipur  series,    become   visible,    forming  a   raised 
rim  round  the  Chhattlsgarh  basin.     In  Bilaspur  District  the 
Chandarpur     sandstones     are   restricted    to   a   narrow    zone 
extending  from  about  10  miles  east  of  Bilaspur  up  to  the  east- 
ernmost boundary  of  the  District,     Elsewhere  the    Raipur 
series  rest  directly  upon  older  rocks  without  the  intervention 
of  the  basal  sandstones. 

The  northern  and  hilly  part  of  the  District  includes  a 
varied  assemblage  of  rock  some  of  which  are  older,  and 
others  newer  than  the  Kadapah  rocks  of  the  southern  belt. 
The  rocks  older  than  the  Kadapah  system  include  gneisses 
of  Archaean  age  and  slates  belonging  to  the  Dharwar  system 
of  Huronian  age,  locally  known  as  the  Chilpi  series.  The 
rocks  newer  than  the  Kadapah  system  belong  to  the  Gond- 
wana  system  and  include  several  subdivisions  :  the  Talchirs  and 
Barakars  (coal-measures)  belonging  to  the  Lower  Gondwanas 
of  Permian  age,  and  the  Kamthi  rocks  belonging  to  the  Middle 
Gondwanas  of  Triassic   age.     Of  all   these  rocks  occupying 

^For  a  brief  account  of  the  classification  and  succession  of  the  various 
geological  sj^stems  met  with  in  India,  see '' A  Summary  of  the  Geology  of 
India"  (Thacker,  Spink  and  Co.,  Calcutta,  1909^  2nd  edition). 

C 


,0  lUrASI'UR.       (.KNIKAI.    l)i:S(  KII'TION. 

the  northern  area  of  the  District  the  older  ones  prevail  in  the 
norlh-wcstcrn  half,  which  is  occupied  almost  entirely  by 
crystalline  formations  of  the  Archaean  gneisses,  while  the 
Ciondwanas  occupy  the  north-eastern  portion. 

These  Gondwana  rocks  form  a  portion  of  a  vast  area  of 
GoiKhv.ina  beds  extending  south-eastward  into  Raigarh, 
Ilingir  and  Sambalpur.  It  is  only  on  a  geological  map  illus- 
trating the  whole  extent  of  this  Gondwana  area  that  the  regu- 
lar north-western  strike  of  its  main  stratigraphical  features 
becomes  readily  appreciable.  On  a  map  of  a  single  District 
which  isolates  a  portion  of  the  Gondwana  basin,  the  geologi- 
cal boundaries  assume  a  somewhat  confused  appearance,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  several  subdivisions  can  best  be  under- 
stood by  a  reference  to  the  annexed  geological  sketch-map. 
The  basal  beds  or  Talchirs  include  greenish  sandstones  and 
shales  through  which  are  scattered  large  boulders  regarded 
as  of  glacial  origin.  The  Barakars  include  white  or  grey 
sandstones  interbedded  with  shales  and  coal  seams.  There 
are  two  patches  of  these  rocks  along  the  Mand  and  Hasdo 
valleys,  constituting  the  Mand  and  Korba  coal-fields,  separ- 
ated from  one  another  by  a  lofty  hill  mass  constituted  by  the 
massive  red  sandstones  of  the  Middle  Gondwana  or  Kamthi. 
Intrusive  dykes  and  sills,  some  of  which  are  of  very  large 
size,  consisting  of  basalt  and  dolerite  of  the  age  of  the  Deccan 
Trap  (Upper  (.retaceous)  often  intersect  the  Gondwana  rocks. 

The  territories  constituting  the  Bilaspur  District  come 
within  the  area  described  by  Ball  in  '  The  Geology  of  the 
Mahunadi  Basin  '  (Rec.  G.  S.  I  ,  Vol.  X,  pages  167  to  186), 
and  by  King  in  '  The  Chhattisgarh  Division  '  (Rec.  G.  S.  I., 
Vol.  XVlll,  pages  169  to  200). 

BOTANY. 

12.  Sd/ or  sarai  {S/wrea  robiistd)  is  the  principal  tim- 

^^^^^  ber  producing  and  prevailing  species; 

it  is  gregarious    and   retains  its  leaves 

throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year ;  the  best  specimens 

of  >.;/  are  found  in  the  forest  oftheLormi   range  where  in 


BOTANY.  I  I 

favourable  localities  it  attains  a  girth  of  eight  or  nine  feet 
and  a  height  of  about  ninety  feet.  It  is  very  sensitive  to 
frost  and  drought ;  consequently  the  majority  of  specimens 
are  poor  compared  with  those  in  other  parts  of  India.  Teak, 
sago7t  {Tectona  grandis),  is  found  indigenous  only  in  the 
Sonakhan  range.  Its  qualities  are  too  well  known  to  require 
mention  here.  Bijasdl.  b'lja  or  bijra  iPterocarpus  MarsupiiDfi) 
is  another  valuable  timber  ranking  next  to  teak.  On  account 
of  the  close  grained  structure  of  the  wood,  the  timber  is 
sometimes  used  for  making  drum  cases  of  the  Indian  country 
dhol.  This  species  also  yields  the  gum  'kino'  of  commerce. 
The  siris  or  shlsJiam  {Dalbergia  latifolia)  is  another  dark 
coloured  wood  used  for  ornamental  furniture  making.  Sdj 
{Terniina/ia  tomentosa)  is  found  in  extensive  quantities,  but 
the  timber  is  not  much  valued  locally  although  it  attains  large 
dimensions  ;  the  bark  is  however  used  for  tanning  and  the 
ash  remains  of  the  wood  are  the  village  Dhobi's  washing 
material.  The  tree  yields  gum  when  tapped.  Kahud 
{Tenninalia  Arj'una)  is  the  graceful  tree  found  along  water- 
courses. The  wood  has  no  better  value  as  timber  than  sdj. 
Dhaurd  {Anogeissus  latifolia)  makes  very  strong  cart  axles. 
The  bark  is  locally  used  for  tanning.  Scnhd  {Lagerstrccniia 
parviflora)  is  the  most  popular  timber  of  the  agriculturists, 
Kal/nl  or  Iialdfi  {Adina  cordifolia)  yields  a  beautiful  yellow 
timber  wiiich  could  be  used  for  furniture  making.  i\Iiirhl 
{Slcphegyne  parvijolia)  yields  timber  of  a  little  lighter  colour 
than  kalim.  Mango  {Mangifera  vidica)  grows  wild  in  groves 
along  water-courses  and  is  better  known  on  account  of  its 
fruit  than  its  timber.  The  tree  is  capable  of  being  infected 
with  lac.  Gillar  {Fictis glomerald)  and  j'dniun  (Eugenia  Jam- 
boland)  grow  wild  along  nullah  banks;  the  timber  is  much  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  well  curbs,  and  the  fruits  are  edible. 
Gnnihdr  or  khamhdr  [Gmelina  arborea)  is  sometimes  valued  as 
timber  for  furniture  making.  Karrd  {Lebidieropsis  orbicularis) 
s  the  main  house  building  wood  of  the  poorer  classes.  Dhdnian 
{Greivia  tilic^folia)  makes  fine  cart  shafts.      Tendu  {Diospyros 


I J  mi.ASITK.       (.KNF.RAL    DI'SCKII'TION. 

tonientosn)  produces  an  inferior  kind  of  ebony.  The 
fruit  is  eaten  and  the  wood  is  fairly  good  for  cart  shafts. 
yV//></  {Otigcinia  (ialhergioiiks)  is  a  strong,  heavy  and 
flexible  timber  much  used  for  making  cart  shafts  and 
naves.  Jyliiia  {Cldoroxylon  Su'teteuia)  is  the  satin  wood 
tree.  The  country  is  not  favourable  for  its  growth  and  the 
tree  does  not  attain  a  sufficient  size  to  be  valued  as  timber, 
nor  does  it  here  develop  the  shining  appearance  for  which  it 
is  especially  prized.  The  leaves  of  the  tree  are  used  locally 
to  destroy  insects.  Kusam  {Schlcichera  trijugd)  is  the 
principal  lac-bearing  tree.  The  seed  yields  a  valuable  oil. 
The  timber  is  sometimes  used  for  making  local  oil-extracting 
machines.  Palas  {Biika  froudosa)  is  another  lac-bearing 
species.  The  tree  yields  a  red  gum.  Its  flowers  which  liave 
a  radiant  hue  are  used  for  colouring;  and  its  roots  are  utilised 
for  tying  ox  yokes  and  the  roofs  of  houses.  Gliont  {Zizyphus 
xylopyrns},bcr  [Ziz^phus  Jujuba),  pipal  (FzVus  religiosd)  and 
gasli  {Ficiis  infcdoria^  are  other  trees  on  which  lac  is  some- 
times found.  The  ripe  hu'iioi  char  {Buchanaiiia  lati folia)  \?, 
eaten  and  the  seed  coat  ground  or  broken  to  get  the  chironji 
of  commerce.  Aonla  {Pliyllanthns  Emblica),  and  bake) a 
{Terminalia  bclerica)  yield  the  myrobalams  of  commerce.  The 
aoula  bark  is  used  for  tanning  hides.  A  red  dye  is  obtained 
from  a  decoction  of  the  bark  of  rolian  {Soywida  fcbrijuga) 
which  is  also  used  as  a  fever  mixture  by  the  villagers.  Barod 
{Kydia  calyciiia)  yields  fibres  for  rope-making.  Kliair  {Acacia 
Catec/iii)  is  also  a  timber  tree  of  some  value,  as  grain-pounders 
{tnusal)  are  made  of  its  wood.  The  poorer  classes  also  use  it 
for  house  posts.  The  chief  use  of  the  tree  is  however  for 
kaiifui  or  catechu  manufacture.  The  powder  on  the  fruits  of 
foh,u\ Ma/lotus  philippincnsis)  is  used  in  dyeing  silks  and  is 
called  kameld.  G algal  {Cocldospcrmtwi  Gossypium)  is  a  soft- 
wooded  species  of  no  value  either  as  timber  or  fuel.  The 
wood  IS  sometimes  used  by  villagers  for  torches.  Salaz 
(BosH'.llui  scnala)  grows  usually  on  the  poorest  of  soils  where 
nothing  else  will  livt  and  for  this  reason  is  usually  gregarious. 


BOTANY.  13 

The  wood  is  used  for  making  match-sticks  and  boxes,  but 
is  brittle  and  does  not  ignite  well  in  the  wet  season  for  which 
reason  it  is  fast  losing  its  popularity  in  the  match  factory  at 
Kota.  The  tree  yi  elds  a  gum  which  burns  readily  with  a 
pungent  odour.  The  branches  of  the  tree  are  used  in  wedding 
ceremonies.  Ghonjd  ox  ghoinjd  {Odina  [f^o^'/d';)  is  another 
species  used  for  match-stick  manufacture.  Semar  grows 
along  river  banks  and  is  the  most  valuable  wood  for  the  match 
factory,  Klka  {Goritga  pinnatd)  and  kurlii  {^Slercidia 
urens)  are  species  which  are  valued  only  for  their  gums. 
Gandhrl  {^Acacia  leiicophlcea) ,  paddl  (Stereospermum  suaveo- 
lens),  bhawarmal  or  kumhh  (Carcya  arborea),  kasai  {Bridelia 
reUtsa),  dliobni  {Dalbergia  paniculald)  and  tilai  (^  IVendlandia 
exseria)  possess  no  special  local  quality.  Imli  {^Tamar Indus 
indica),nim  {Melta  indica),  babfil  {Acacia  arabtca)  are  not 
indigenous  forest  trees  but  occur  throughout  the  District. 
They  are  generally  met  with  on  old  deserted  sites  of 
villages.  Bakain{Melia  azadirachta)  is  of  rare  occurrence; 
harsinghdr  {Nyctanthes arbor-trislis)  is  famous  for  its  sweet- 
scented  flowers  whose  red  stalks  give  a  yellow  colour  ;  the 
leaves  can  also  be  used  for  polishing  wood  work.  Bar  (F/cus 
benga/efisis)  \s  a.]arge  ever-green  tree  with  a  spreading  crown 
throwing  down  numerous  aerial  shoots  from  the  branches^ 
The  twigs  are  a  favourite  fodder  for  elephants  and  the  fruit  is 
sometimes  eaten  by  children.  Bel  {Aegle  Marmelos)  is  the 
sacred  tree  of  the  Hindus.  The  pulp  of  the  ripe  fruit  is  a 
laxative  and  mixed  with  a  little  milk  and  sugar  makes  a  very 
agreeable  cooling  sherbat.  The  unripe  fruit  either  boiled  or 
roasted  is  used  as  a  specific  for  diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  The 
pulp  is  also  used  to  strengthen  lime  mortar.  The  mucus  with 
which  the  cells  of  the  fruit  are  filled  is  used  for  adhesive  pur- 
poses. Mahua  (Bassia  latifolia^  is  valued  for  its  seeds  and 
flowers.  The  former  yield  an  oil  which  is  used  by  villagers 
both  for  lighting  purposes  and  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  ghi 
with  which  it  is  mixed.  Country  liquor  is  distilled  from  the 
flowers  which    are  also    used   as  food  stuff's  by  poor  people. 


14  niiAsruR,     gknkkal  df.scription. 

■J  he  wood  would  be  valuable  as  timber  but  for  its  tough- 
ness which  resists  the  action  of  the  saw.  Bohar  {Cordya 
Afvxa)  yields  fibres  for  rope-making.  The  leaves  are  cooked 
as  vegetables  and  the  friiit  is  eaten.  The  fruit  of  amerd 
{Sf>ontiias  mavtiifcra)  is  eaten  either  raw  or  cooked  and  is 
somciinics  made  into  pickle.  The  bark  of  korai  {Holarrliena 
anlii/fscfiloiat)  and  its  leaves  and  seeds  (called  indrajava) 
are  used  as  a  cure  for  dysentery.  Bhilaivd  {Sentecarpus 
^wara/Y////;;/)  is  the  marking-nut  tree.  The  cup  of  the  ripe 
fruii  is  eaten  raw,  dried  or  roasted.  An  oil  is  extracted  out  of 
the  seeds  which  is  said  to  be  a  pain-killer.  The  pulp  of  the 
ripe  fruit  of  dhauhaher  {Cass/a  fistula)  is  a  strong  purgative. 
The  wood  is  used  as  a  threshing  post  in  Chhattlsgarh.  The 
leaves  of  sonpdn  (Rauhiiiia  variegnld)  are  exchanged  between 
friends  and  relatives  at  Dasahra  as  a  good  omen.  The  leaves 
of  nuili  '^liauhiuia  tnnlahan'ca)  are  cooked  as  a  vegetable. 

13.  Of  the  shrubs  the   following    deserve    mention: — 

The  seeds    of  the  kharhar  (Gardenia 

Shrubs  and  bamboos.  _  ^ 

turgida)  produce  a  lather  when  mixed 
and  rubbed  with  water,  which  is  then  sometimes  used  to  wash 
clothes.  The  wood  is  very  flexible  andean  be  bent  round  to 
prepare  frames  of  the  dhapld  or  c/iang(Rn  Indian  rustic  drum). 
Dhaivai  ^Woodfordia floribiinda)  is  a  shrub  with  red  flowers. 
Ih'kdninli  {Gardenia  liicida)  yields  a  resin  useful  as  an  insect- 
killcr.  The  unripe  fruit  of  the  mainphal  {Rnndia  dutne/orum) 
is  used  to  poison  fish.  A/akai  or  makor  {Zizyphus  Ocnnplia) 
is  a  straggling  and  thorny  shrub  giving  only  good  fencing 
niaterial  to  the  agriculturist.  The  fruit  is  eaten.  Mdror- 
pfialil/rlich-ren  Isora)  \s  known  by  its  twisted  fruit  and  the 
bark  is  utilised  for  making  rope.  Dendrocalaimis  stridus  is 
the  common  bamboo  of  the  hills.  Bambusa  arnndmacea  is 
cultivated  and  is  found  wild  in  damp  localities. 

WILD    ANIMALS,    ETC. 

14.  FJfphastndicm,  wild  elephants  (Hindi //J////,  Chhat- 
F.un..  tisgarhi    /lai/iia),  were   formerly  found 

in  the    forests   of   Matin    and    Uprora 


WILD    ANIMALS,    ETC.  1$ 

zamlndaris  in  considerable  numbers,  but  there  are  very  few 
left  now.  In  the  rains  they  wander  as  far  afield  as  ihe 
Chhuri  and  Korba  jungles  and  the  Lormi  forest. 

Scmnopithccus  ^///r////5,  the  Bengal  Langur  (Hind,  langfir, 
kannuhd,  Chhattls.  bendrd). — Is  i'ound  in  all  parts  of  the 
District  being  fairly  common  in  the  forests.  It  causes  a  good 
deal  of  damage  to  crops  and  fruit  trees  and  is  considered 
more  or  less  sacred  by  the  natives.  Cases  are  on  record  of 
large  males  chasing  natives  who  have  tried  to  drive  them  off 
their  crops. 

MacacHS  rhesus,  the  small  common  red  faced  monkey 
(Hind,  bandar,  lalinuhd,  Chhattls.  bendrd). — Is  not  so 
con.mon  as  the  lofegilr.  It  generally  inhabits  slopes  of  iiills 
with  a  southern  aspect  near  nullahs  and  rivers.  It  is  often  to 
be  seen  in  captivity  and  is  used  for  begging  and  other  pur- 
poses. 

Fe/i's  tigris,  the  tiger,  (Hind.  bdgJi,  slier,  Chhattls. 
baghwd). — Is  found  in  all  the  forest  tracts  of  the  District. 
It  does  not  run  to  the  great  length  of  the  Bengal  tiger  but  is 
generally  a  very  heavily  built  animal.  The  largest  male  tiger 
shot  in  these  parts  measured  lo'  2"  in  length.  Females 
average  above  8'  6"  in  length.  The  tiger  is  very  destructive 
to  game  and  cattle,  and  in  the  hot  weather  they  will  often 
follow  a  herd  of  tame  buffaloes  for  months  killing  every  third 
or  fourth  day.  As  a  rule  tigers  breed  in  February  and  March, 
the  tigress  generally  tlirovving  two  or  three  cubs.  The  cubs 
remain  with  the  mother  for  about  three  3'ears.  when  they  are 
almost  full  grown.  In  the  wet  weather  tigers  retire  to  the 
hills  following  the  game  and  avoiding  flies.  Cases  are  known 
of  tigers  dying  from  wounds  caused  by  porcupine  quills.  A 
white  tiger  was  shot  in  the  Pendra  zamindari  five  years  ago, 
the  skin  being  exhibited  in  the  Central  Provinces  Exhibition 
of  1908-09. 

Felispardtis,  the  pard  or  panther  (Hind,  and  Chhattls. 
tendud).  —  Is  fairly  common  in  all  parts  of  the  District.  It 
is    comparatively   fearless   of    man  and    consequently    very 


1(5  nir.ASPCR.     r.r.NT.RAi,  description. 

destructive  to  cattle,  goats  and  dogs.  There  are  reported 
to  be  two  or  three  varieties  of  this  animal  in  tlie  District,  but 
there  are  no  reliable  data  to  support  this  supposition. 

/•>//.sr//rt/<.s-,the  common  jungle  cat  {H\nd.jii»g/i  billi,  ban 
billi,  Chhattis.  ban  bilwd).—ls  fairly  common  all  through  the 
District  frequenting  both  jungle  and  open  grass  country.    It 
feeds  on  the  smaller  game  such  as  the   partridge,  hare    and 
peafowl. 

Vivcrrn  vinlaccciisis,  \.hc\essev  c'wtt  cat  (Hind,  viushak 
billi,  kaslihi,  Chhattis.  ^^^>/ao//). — Generally  found  in  forests 
living  in  holes  in  the  ground  or  trees.  Feeds  on  small 
birds  and  animals.     More  than  one  at  a  time  are  rarely  seen. 

Ilcrpes^les  pallidiis,  the  mongoose  (Hind,  ncwald,  Chhat- 
tis. iicxvara)  — Very  common  throughout  the  District.  Is 
not  shy  and  will  often  enter  human  dwellings  in  search  of 
food.  Is  easily  tamed  if  caught  young.  Is  extremely 
agile. 

Hwriia  striata,  the  striped  hyrena  (Hind,  lakarbaghd, 
Chhattis.  rcrivd). — Is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  District.  A 
cowardly  brute,  living  chiefly  on  carrion,  but  is  not  above 
taking  a  village  goat  now'  and  then.  Is  almost  entirely 
nocturnal  and  lives  in  burrows. 

Canis  pallifics,  the  Indian  wolf  (Hind,  bheria  or  big- 
hand,  Chhattis.  bigivd  or  htindrd).— Is  fairly  common  in 
the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the  District  and  has 
sometimes  done  a  great  deal  of  damage,  frequently 
attacking  and  carrying  off  native  children.  It  generally 
hunts  in  small  packs. 

Canis  aureus,  the  jackal  (Hind,  glday-  or  sydr,  Chhattis. 
koh/ia).— Very  common  throughout  the  District  except  in  very 
heavy  forest  which  he  apparently  does  not  frequent.  They 
frequently  are  attacked  with  rabies. 

Cams  niti/ans,  the  Indian  wild  dog  (Hind,  sonkuttd  ov  ban- 
kuttd,  Chhattis  sunhd  or  hogwd).-T>o&s  much  damage  to  game 
more  particularly  in  the  hot  weather.  It  will  attack  almost 
any  animal   and  is  reported  to  attack  even  the  tiger.     Hunts 


WILD    ANIMALS,    ETC.  17 

in  packs  from  ten  to  fifty.  The  wild  dog  has  wonderful 
powers  of  scent  and  hunts  by  daylight. 

Vu/fies  bengalensis,  the  Indian  fox  (Hind.  lo)nri,  Chhat- 
tis.  lakhurri).  —  Is  very  common  in  the  open  country. 

Melursus  labiaius,  the  Indian  sloth  bear  (Hind  and 
Chhattls.  bhdlu,  rlchli). — Found  in  all  the  hilly  forests  of  the 
District.  A  large  male  will  measure  over  6  feet  from  snout 
to  root  of  tail.  Females  average  about  5  feet  6  inches  in 
length.  Does  damage  to  fruit  trees.  She-bears  with  cubs, 
or  any  bear  if  suddenly  disturbed,  will  attack  human  beings. 
It  is  easily  tamed  if  caught  young.  The  female  has  as  a  rule 
two  cubs,  born  about  January  or  February  and  carries  them 
on  her  back.  Is  almost  entirely  nocturnal,  sleeping  nearly 
all  day  in  caves  or  under  trees  in  some  shady  spot. 

Lepits  rnficaiidatiiSy  the  common  Indian  hare  (Hind. 
khargosh,  Chhattls.  laiiiJid  or  bluithaUd). — Very  common 
especially  in  bush  jungle.  Natives  often  have  regular  hunts 
for  them  and  kill  a  good  many  in  nets. 

Sus  cristaltis,  the  Indian  boar  (Hind,  siiar,  Chhattls. 
hatha). — Found  iliroughout  the  District.  It  is  most  des- 
tructive to  cultivation.  They  are  usually  found  in  large 
sounders. 

Scitirus  palmarum,  the  common  ground  squirrel  (Hind. 
gilahri,  Chhattls  chilhrd  ) — Very  common  in  all  parts  of  the 
District. 

Sciurus  jnaxiintts,  the  Central  Indian  red  squirrel  (Hind. 
karai,  Chhattls.  gJia7iidri). — Is  found  in  a  few  special  locali- 
ties only  away  from  human  habitations. 

Gazdla  Benueltii,  the  Indian  gazelle  (Hind,  and  Chhattls. 
chin!idra).  —  Y onnd  in  most  parts  of  the  District.  Is  not 
partial  to  forests,  living  mostly  in  sandy  ravines,  covered 
with  bush  jungle.  Is  exceedingly  restless  but  never  moves 
far  away  from  one  spot. 

Antilope  bezoartica,  the  sasin  or  Indian  antelope  (Hind. 
hiran,  Chhatiis.  harind,  karsdyal,  with  big  horns).  —  Is  found 
in   the  central    parts  of   the   District    frequenting   cultivated 

D 


,g  nilASPUR.       GFNF.RAI.    DESCRIPTION. 

^Mound  to  whirl,  it  docs  considerable  damage.  The  bucks 
do  not  run  to  any  great  size,  the  horns  being  much 
smaller  than  those  that  can  be  obtained  in  other  parts  such  as 
Herar  and  Central  India.  The  horns  of  this  animal  are 
used  by  natives  as  decorations  in  tlieir  marriage  ceremonies 
ana   also   as   an    article   of   commerce  for     making    fancy 

goods. 

Porinx pictmiBosEliphas  Trogocnmcltts),  the  Nilgai  or 

blue  bull  (Hind,  ^uli^oi.  Chhattis.  gnraya  lUgai  ov  rojlimo).— 

Fairly   common    throughout    the  District  both  in  thick  forest 

and    in    sparsely  covered   jungle.     The  male  does  not  attain 

his  iron  grey  colour  till  almost  full  grown,  young  males  being 

llie   same  colour   as   females.     Lives     in    herds    and    feeds 

niornin;^s  and  evenings  and  throughout    the    night.     Can  be 

made  to  carry  a   pack.     The    flesh  is  coarse.     Females  have 

been  known  to  develop   the  iron    grey   colour    which   males 

attain  at  maturity  but  such  cases  are  rare. 

Tell  aceros  qiiadi  icornis,  the  four-horned  antelope    (Hind. 

fArti/s///^<J,  Chhattis.  kotri,  ha)i-lakrl,  char-siugh a).—  Common 

in  all  the    forests.     Is   very  shy    and    difficult  to  get  a    shot 

at.     Tlie    anterior  horns    are  often  only  small    knobs  and  in 

some  cases  are  absent. 

Gannis  gaums,  the  gaur  (Hind,  and  Chhattis.  ^rt«r). — 

Found  in  forests  to  the  north-west  and  south  of  the  District, 

generally  in  herds  of  from  5  to  30  owned  by  one  big    bull. 

Bulls  are  often  solitary  either  having  been  turned  out  of  a  herd 

by  reason  of  old  age  or  else  being  too  young  to  own  a  herd. 

Old  bulls  are  almost  black.     They  have  been  known  to  charge 

when  wounded.     This  animal  prefers  hilly  ground   and  lives 

on  leaves  and  grass,    young    shoots  of  the  bamboo   being  a 

r.i\ our ite  food      It  is  extremely   shy.     In  the  rains  the  gaur 

retires  to   the    tops   of  the  hills  to  get    away  from  the  flies. 

It  is  seldom  molested  by  a  tiger.     A  full  grown    bull   stands 

between  17  and  18  hands  at  the  withers. 

Ccrvultis   iiiinitjac,  the  muntjac  or  rib-faced  deer  (Hind. 

A-.?/./</.  Chhattis   bhaseid).—Y^\\\y  common  in  all  the  jungles 


WILD    ANIMALS,    ETC.  19: 

of  the  District.     Is    generally  found    alone.     Utters  a    short 
bark,  not  unlike  that  of  a  terrier,  when  alarmed. 

Rttsa  Aristolelis,  the  sambhar  (Hind,  and  Chhattis. 
sdinbhay). —  Found  only  in  the  more  remote  forests.  Is  almost 
entirely  nocturnal  in  its  habits.  Horns  are  valuable  both  as 
trophies  and  as  an  article  of  commerce.  The  skin  of  the 
sambhar  is  exceptionally  useful  as  a  leather  for  boots,  etc. 
Stags  shed  their  horns  in  April. 

CetvHS  axis,  the  spotted  deer  or  chltal  (Hind,  and 
Chhattis.  chltal,  male  dhdnk). — Is  found  throughout  the 
forests  of  the  District,  living  in  herds.  Prefers  tuore 
open  forest  than  the  sambhar  and  never  ranges  far  from 
water.     Stags  usually  shed  their  horns  in  July. 

Rucetvus  Duvancelli,  the  swamp  deer  (Hind,  bdrasinghd^ 
Chhattis.  bngdaria). — Found  in  open  sal  forests  and  grass 
glades.  The  appearance  of  the  animal  is  singularly  like  that 
of  the  European  stag.  A  good  head  is  37  inches  long  and  has 
12  points.  The  rut  takes  places  in  December  and  January, 
when  the  stags  are  very  noisy  and  pugnacious,  the  whole 
forest  ringing  with  their  most  peculiar  call.  After  the  rut  the 
stags  leave  the  hinds.  The  horns  fall  in  April  and  at  this 
season  they  assume  the  summer  coat  which  exhibits  distinct 
indications  of  spots  and  markings  similar  to  those  habitually 
worn  by  the  chltal.  Their  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  grass. 

Memiinna  indica,  Indian  mouse  deer  (Hind,  pisuri, 
Chhattis.  khabri). — Found  in  dense  forests  nearly  always 
solitary.  Are  very  timid  and  look  extremely  delicate. 
About  the  same  weight  as  a  hare.  Make  excellent  pets 
when  caught  young. 

Hystrix  kucura,  the  white  tailed  Indian  porcupine 
(Hind,  seyi,  Chhattis.  saihd). — Fairly  common. 

Lulra  vulgaris,  the  common  Indian  otter  (Hind,  pani- 
kiittd,  Chhattis.  ud). — Found  in  all  the  larger  rivers  which 
flow  through  the  District. 

Pteropus  mediiis,  the  flying  fox  (Hind,  warbaghtil, 
Chhattis.  chatiigidri  or  gidur). — Huge  colonies  of  these  large 


20  DILASPl'R.       CKNKUAI.    DESCRIPTION. 

fruit  enters  arc  often  to  be  seen  hanging  on  tamarind  trees. 
The  natives  kill  large  quantities  of  them  by  putting  nets  round 
fruit  trees,  but  tliis  makes  little  difference  in  their  numbers. 
They  drink  in  the  evenings  by  flying  over  water  and  dropping 
down  every  now  and  then  in  their  flight.  The  natives  assert 
that  their  flesh  if  boiled  down  makes  a  good  medicine  for 
rheumatism. 

15.   All  the  usual  game  birds  are  found   in  the    District, 
duck  and   snipe  being   fairly    common 
in   the  cold    weather.     The  demoiselle 
crane  visits   the  Mahanadi  in  the  cold  season.     The  peafowl 
{Paio  cn'sla/us)  is  common  in  forests  where  dense  forest  exists 
with  water  and  cultivation  close  at  hand.  The  spur  and  Jungle 
fowls  are  met  with  only  in   hilly  tracts.     The  grey  partridge 
{Ortygoniis  Poiiiiceriantis)  is   common   in  low  jungles   round 
cultivation.     Sand-grouse  are  also  found  in  one  or  two  places 
but  are  rare.     The  bastard   (Chhattls.  honia)  is  rarely  found. 
The   bush   quail  {Ptrdiciila   Asialica)  known  locally  as  lava 
and  the  grey  quail  {Cotiimix  coinninnis)    called  chimiik    are 
common.     They  resort   to  grassy  plains   and   scrub  forests. 
The   gutuhii   or    bustard  quail    {Tnrnix   Pugnax)  frequents 
jungle   wastes  and  the   turadabkl  or  the  little  button    quail 
{Tuniix    Uitssinnini)    is     common    over  the  grassy    plains 
of   the    District.      The    spurred   goose    nuktd    {Sarkidiornis 
viclaiionottis),  the  goose-teal  girjd  {Netlafyus  coroinandelianus) 
and  the  whistling  teal  silli  {Dendrocycna  Javamca)  breed  in 
trees  and  resort  to  tanks  and j7i7ls,  staying  throughout  the  year. 
Green  pigeons  {liaruil)  are  found  in  wooded  tracts  feeding  on 
various  wild  fruits.     Tiie  blue  rock  pigeon  kabfitar  {Columba 
inUnm-dia)  haunts  large  buildings  such  as  temples,  tombs  and 
mosques  and  also  large   solitary  trees.     Species    of  herons 
and  egrets  commonly  called  bugld  by  natives  are  usually  found 
round  tanks,  marshes  and  river  banks.     The  plumes  of  these 
creatures  are  much  in  demand.     Besides  these  the  following 
birds  are  also  found  in  the   District :— swallows  and  swifts  or 
bayd  or  abdbil,  king  fishers  or  kUkild  much  sought  after  for 


WILD    ANIMALS,    ETC.  21 

their  skin  and  feathers,  wood-peckers  called  lakarphors 
abounding  in  wooded  tracts  and  sometimes  found  in  gardens 
and  in  the  avei>ues  of  trees  planted  on  roadsides,  shrikes  or 
lahiora  inhabiting  open  jungles,  drongo  shrikes  called  bhiinrdj 
and  also  fly-catchers,  mynas  and  sparrows  found  in  the  open 
and  wooded  tracts  of  the  District. 

16.  The  rivers  are  well  stocked  with  numerous  kinds  of 
fish  which  are  a  favourite  article  of  food 
among  nearly  all  classes.  The  princi- 
pal varieties  found  are — -large  variety,  parlian,  rechha,  te/tu, 
hausiii,  parivans,  kaldnt,  viuncid,  kainichhi,  kotrd,  sinlan, 
saivar  or  sanwal,  kusrd ;  small  variety,  singan  or  kcwai, 
niongri,  kdrijenzva,  sanity  ietigiid,  ^uugwdri,  kotii^  bdm,  nio/i- 
rdli,  guidd,  phalia,  galdj,  kokya,  singi.  The  most  abundant 
are  pariyans,  kotrd,  kolri  and  kokyd.  The  Mahanadi,  the 
Seonfith,  the  Arpa,  the  Maniari,  the  Hasdo,  the  Kharun,  the 
Lllagar  and  the  Hanp  rivers  and  the  Ratanpur  tanks  are  the 
principal  source  of  supply.  The  Seonath  and  the  Mahanadi 
especially  contain  a  large  variety  which  sometimes  weighs 
over  20  seers.  A  considerable  quantity  of  fish  is  consumed 
in  the  District  and  the  prevalence  of  leprosy  lends  some  support 
to  Dr.  yutchinson's  theory  connecting  fish  eating  with  that 
disease.  In  the  Mahanadi  there  is  cida/ud  or  deep  pool  near 
Jaitpur  and  Barekel  villages,  from  which  many  cartloads  of 
fish  are  annuallyextracted.  Numbers  of  small  fish  are  captured 
during  the  monsoon  months  in  the  rice  fields  and  sometimes  in 
creeks  filled  by  the  back  waters,  of  the  rivers  in  flood.  In 
the  rice  fields  wicker  baskets  are  placed  at  the  drainage 
openings  of  the  fields  to  catch  the  fish.  The  various  methods 
in  use  in  the  District  for  catching  fish  are  as  foUowa : — ;i) 
The  inahdjdl  or  great  fishing  net  used  in  very  large  streams. 
Two  are  taken  from  different  directions  towards  one  central 
point,  the  fish  being  driven  by  beating  the  water  to  the  point 
where  they  are  caught  between  the  two  niuhdjdls.  (2)  The 
/!><i^  or  long  net  secured  at  both  ends  with  pegs  like  a  tennis 
net.      Fish    are    driven  lowards    it    and    then    causrht    with 


23  HIIASPUR.       GI.NKHAI.    DK-SCRirTION. 

malinjdh.  (3)  Tlic  iok/n' or  bhamvai  jdl  is  a  cast  net.  It  has 
iron  weights  attached  to  it  and  is  thrown  in  the  water  so  as  to 
enclose  a  circular  space  about  S  to  10  feet  in  diameter.  The 
outer  end  throughout  the  circumference  lias  a  hning  of  loose 
netting  which  collects  all  the  fish  falling  within  the  circle 
when  drawn  in  by  the  rope  attached  to  the  centre  of  the  net. 
(4)  The  pailiui  or  small  net  used  chiefly  for  taking  prawns 
and  small  fish.  It  is  a  hand  net  fastened  to  a  triangular 
frame.  (5)  The  Art//.'<^?  yVr/ or  frame  net.  This  is  something 
like  a  large  netting  basket,  the  mouth  being  about  7x10  feet 
stretched  by  two  bamboo  pieces  crossing  each  other  diagon- 
ally. The  mouth  is  placed  to  face  the  stream  supported  by 
a  small  stick  attached  to  the  back.  The  water  is  then 
beaten  with  sticks.  The  fish  run  into  the  net  and  are  caught. 
(6)  Iliiiiydl  is  a  funnel  or  cone-shaped  bamboo  net  and  is 
placed  over  a  shoal  of  small  fish,  but  only  one  or  two  are  caught 
at  a  time.  (7)  Douivar  is  a  baited  night  or  day  line  with 
several  hooks  attached  to  one  string.  (8)  Dhir  is  a  bamboo 
wicker  work  placed  at  the  opening  of  the  fields.  (9)  Khdiidi 
is  a  cage-like  bamboo  trap  which  like  a  mouse  trap  lets  in 
fish  and  prevents  their  egress.  The  smallest  sized  meshes 
seen  in  the  District  are  one-fifth  of  an  inch  from  knot  to  knot. 
It  is  impossible  for  the  smallest  fish  to  get  out  of  these 
traps.  At  the  close  of  the  rains  when  the  waters  subside 
fi^«h  are  caught  by  the  method  known  as  ttlecJmd.  Women 
partition  out  the  shallow  water  with  mud  and  with  a 
basket  throw  out  water  from  one  compartment  to  the  other. 
When  one  compartment  gets  very  shallow  they  catch  the  fish 
without  difficulty. 

RAINFAl-L  AND  CLIMATE. 

17.  Rainfall  is  registered  at  the  three  tahsll  headquarters, 

Ramf.ill.  ^^  Ihezamlndari  headquarters  of  Pendra, 

Korba  and  Pandaria  and  at  Pondi  in  the 

Lapha   zamindari.     The  last    four   stations   have   only   been 

opened  a  few  years  ago.     The  average  rainfall  of  the  District 

for  the  40  years   ending    1906-07,  being  the   mean   of    the 


R.MNFAI.L    AND    CLIMATE. 


23 


tahsll  figures,  was  48  inches,  or  one  incli  more  than  that 
of  Raipur  District.  The  separate  figures  for  the  tahsils  are 
Bilaspur  47  inches,  Mungell  45  inches  and  Janjgir  $0 
inches.  The  returns  of  Pendra,  and  Korba  for  the  six 
years  ending  1905-06  indicate  that,  as  might  be  expected, 
the  rainfall  is  considerably^  heavier  on  the  forest-clad  plateau 
to  the  north.  For  this  short  period  Korba  has  an  average 
of  56  inches  and  Pendra  of  57.  The  figure  for  Pandaria 
is  46  inches  or  a  little  more  than  for  Mungeli.  The  maximum 
and  minimum  annual  amounts  registered  at  each  tahsll  station 
during  the  last  40  years  are  : — 


Maxi- 
mum. 

Year. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Year. 

Bilaspur 

80 

1877-78 

30 

iJ?86-87 

Mungeli 

86 

1876-77 

21 

1873-74 

Janjgir 

77 

1896-97 

25 

1868-69 

During  the  period  of  40  years  the  average  District 
rainfall  was  less  than  40  inches  in  ten  years  and  above  50 
inches  in  eighteen  years.  It  is  apparent  from  the  statistics 
that  the  Mungeli  tahsil  receives  substantially  less  rain  than 
the  remainder  of  the  District.  As  this  area  is  largely  a  black- 
soil  tract  and  grows  a  considerable  proportion  of  spring 
crops  it  requires  less  moisture  than  the  yellow  rice-land  of 
the  south.  But  it  is  the  case  also  that  during  the  succession 
of  bad  years  in  the  nineties  the  west  of  the  Mungell  tahsll 
like  the  whole  belt  of  black-soil  country  lying  below  the 
Maikal  range  appeared  to  fare  worse  than  the  rest  of  the 
Chhattlsgarh  plain  and,  after  the  Vindhyan  plateau,  was  per- 
haps the  most  uniformly  unfortunate  tract  in  the  Province. 
Nearly  44^  inches  of  the  annual  District  total  are  received 
during  the  five  wet  months  from  June  to  September  divided 
roughly  as  follows  : — June  8    inches,  July    14^,  August   12^, 


24  lUIASIM'H.       OF.NERAI.    DESCRIPTION. 

September  7 J,  and  O.tobcr  i^     The  fall  for   the  remaining 
seven  n)onths  is  a  little  more  than  3^  inches. 

18.  The  District  has  no  observatory  in  the  plains,  but  the 

climate  closely  resembles  that  of  Rai- 

(i.mntc.  ^^^^  _        ^j^^     headquarters   station    of 

Bilaspur  is  believed  to  be  a  little  cooler  than  Raipur,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  stands  on  black  instead  of  red  soil.  In  May 
the  thermometer  rises  to  nearly  116  ,  but  its  usual  range  is 
from  82  to  107''.  In  July  the  range  of  temperature  is  much 
smaller  being  from  75-'  to  87^  on  an  average,  while  in  January 
the  average  maxima  and  minima  are  82"  and  55^  There  has 
been  since  1903  an  Imperial  observatory  at  Pendra  Road 
station  on  the  Katnl  Branch  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway. 
Its  records  show  an  average  range  of  tcm.perature  from  70° 
to  105  in  May  with  an  actual  maximum  of  108^,  from  70"  to 
90  in  July,  and  from  41"  to  83""  in  January  with  an  actual 
minimum  of  39  .  The  hot  winds  blow  from  the  middle  of 
April  to  the  middle  of  June  and  the  heat  is  at  times  very 
trying.  But  occasional  thunderstorms  are  obtained  and 
afford  a  cool  day  now  and  again.  During  the  nights  through- 
out tiie  hot  weather  there  is  usually  a  light  cool  breeze.  In 
the  rains  the  heat  is  much  less,  but  the  dampness  of  the 
atmosphere  produces  sensations  of  enervation  and  discom- 
fort. In  the  northern  plateau  the  climate  is  much  cooler, 
resembling  that  of  Jubbulpore.  but  from  July  to  January 
there  is  much  malaria. 


*  Statistics  of  temperature  for    Raipur  are  given    in  the  Gazetteer  of 
tlut  DiHrict. 


CHAPTER  II. 
HISTORY  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

HISTORY. 

19.  According  to  local  tradition  Ratanpur,  the    ancient 
capital     of  Chhattlsgarh,    has   existed 

A  Brahtoan  story. 

throughout  the  four  cosmic  periods  of 
the  world,  and  has  changed  its  name  at  the  end  of  each  period. 
Its  original  name  was  iVIanipur.  When  the  next  age  began  in 
which  God  incarnated  himself  as  Rama,  the  hero  of  the  Rama- 
yana,  it  was  changed  to  Manikpur.  In  the  third  age  it  was 
named  Hirapur,  and  now  in  the  Kali  or  iron  age  it  is  called 
Ratanpur.  All  these  names  are  synonyms  meaning  '  the  town 
of  precious  stones.'  In  the  third  age,  we  are  told,  Krishna 
the  incarnation  of  God  visited  this  '  town  of  virtuous  kings.' 
The  reader  of  the  Mahabharat  will  remember,  perhaps,  the 
adventures  of  Arjunand  his  horse.  The  story  is  that  a  Raja 
named  Mayurdhwaj,  or  Muratdhwaj,  was  reigning  at  Ratan- 
pur when  Krishna  was  upon  the  earth.  To  consolidate  his 
kingdom  Mayurdhwaj  deputed  his  son  Tamradhwaj  to  make  a 
tour  through  the  territory  south  of  the  Vindhyas  and  east  of 
the  Maikal  range.  Tamradhwaj  started  forth  prepared  to 
wage  war  against  any  chief  who  seized  the  richly  caparisoned 
and  riderless  charger  which  preceded  him,  this  act  of 
seizure  involving  according  to  custom  a  claim  to  equality  and 
independence.  In  the  course  of  his  journey  Tamradhwaj 
encountered  another  horse  with  a  golden  plate  on  its 
forehead  bidding  similar  defiance  to  all-comers.  He  had  it 
seized  and  brouglit  to  his  camp.  The  horse  was  Arjun's 
who  soon  followed  with  his  army  and  gave  battle.  The 
fight  lasted  till  evening  and  Tamradhwaj  found  that  he 
had  lost  ground.  Perplexed  and  dubious,  he  consulted  his 
aged  priest  who  told  him  that  Krishna  was  on  the  side  of 
Arjun,    and    that    further  resistance    would   bring   disaster. 


20  llII.ASPUK.       HISTORY    AND    ARCHEOLOGY. 

Tims  advised  Tamradhwaj  fled  with  liis  followers  by  night 
to  Kaianpur  bringing  Arjun's  horse  with  him  and  there  at  his 
father's  capital  awaited  his  enemies.  Finding  on  the  morrow 
th.it  his  opponent  had  fled,  Arjun  decided  to  follow  him  to 
Kaianpiir.  Hut  Krishna  interposed  and  forbade  Arjun  to 
Miga-je  in  battle  saying  that  Mayurdhwaj  was  his  (Krishna's) 
iricnd.anda  devout  and  exemplary  prince  whom  it  would  be 
a  crime  to  injure.  It  was  necessary  however  that  Arjun's 
horse  should  be  restored,  and  Krishna  himself  undertook  to 
find  a  peaceful  solution  of  the  difficulty.  Leaving  Arjun's 
army  behind,  Krishna  entered  Ratanpur  as  an  old  Brahman 
accompanied  by  Arjun  as  his  son.  First  they  wandered 
through  the  town,  of  which  a  glowing  description  is  given  ; 
and  then  Krishna  proceeded  alone  to  the  Raja's  palace. 
It  was  the  well-known  custom  of  Mayurdhwaj  to  give  imme- 
diate audience  to  all  Brahmans  from  a  foreign  country,  to 
hear  their  experiences  and  to  giant  any  wish  they  might 
express.  Krishna  acoordingl}'  announced  himself  at  the 
palace  gates  as  a  Brahman  from  a  distant  country,  and  was 
at  once  admitted  to  the  Raja's  presence. 

Krishna  :—0  Raja,  1  am  a  Brahman  of  the  land  of 
Dwarka,  a  priest  to  the  great  and  mighty  family  of  Yadavas. 
I  ask  alms  of  no  man.  and  though  I  am  now  in  sorrow,  your 
money  cannot  lighten  my  burden. 

/^ri/'J.-— Is  there  naught  I  can  do?  For  though  I  am 
the  prince  of  a  great  country  my  chief  joy  is  to  promote  the 
happiness  of  Brahmans. 

ktts/iiia  :—l  will  tell  you  my  story.  I  have  an  only  son, 
and  hearing  of  the  fairness  of  the  daughters  of  this  distant 
land,  1  travelled  here  to  get  him  married.  On  the  way  to 
your  city,  a  tiger  seized  my  son.  I  offered  myself  in  his 
stead  without  avail,  but  finally  the  tiger  consented  to  release 
him  on  one  condition,  and  as  this  condition  concerned 
your  highness,  I  had  made  bold  to  approach  your  presence. 
But  now  that  I  am  liere.  I  tremble  with  fear  and  my  lips 
reluse  to  utter  the  tiger's  cruel  terms. 


HISTORY.  27 

Raja  .-—Speak  Brahman,  my  wealth,  my  kingdom,  my 
all,  are  at  your  disposal,  if  so  be  I  can  save  your  son. 

Krhlma : — I  cannot  tell  you,  and  must  therefore  only 
bear  my  grief. 

Rdjd  : — I  command  you  to  speak,  and  promise,  on  my 
honour  as  a  Rajput,  compliance  with  the  tiger's  conditions 
whatever  they  be. 

Krishna  : — Then  hear  O  Raja.  It  is  with  sorrow  I  utter 
the  words,  but  the  tiger  releases  my  son  only  on  one  condi- 
tion, that  of  receiving  half  of  your  body. 

Raja : — I  shall  keep  my  word,  it  is  his. 

No  sooner  had  the  Raja  given  his  promise,  which  those 
about  him  well  knew  he  would  never  abandon,  than  Krishna 
was  besieged  with  entreaties  to  interfere  and  prevent  tiie 
sacrifice.  The  Rani  Kumud  Devi,  with  affectionate  logic, 
pleaded  that  a  wife  was  half  her  husband  and  that  therefore 
she  should  be  taken ;  Tamradhwaj  urged  that  a  son  repre- 
sented a  part  of  his  father,  so  that  his  person  miglit  fairly  be 
accepted.  Assailed  on  all  sides  Krishna  rose  to  leave,  when 
Mayurdhvvaj  stepped  forward,  and  sending  for  a  saw,  com- 
manded his  wife  and  son  each  to  hold  an  end  and  commence 
sawing  his  body  from  the  head  downwards.  No  sooner  had 
the  cruel  ceremony  commenced  than  the  left  eye  began  to 
water  copiously.  Krishna  at  once  interfered,  and  declared  he 
could  accept  no  offering  which  was  evidently  made  with  such 
reluctance.      Then    Rani   Kumud  Devi  addressed   Krishna. 

*  Think  not,  O  Brahman,  that  my  husband  relents.  See  you 
'  not  that  the  left  eye  only  weeps,  and  well  it  may,  for 
'  while  the  right  side  of  the  body  is  to  do  honourable   service 

*  in    saving   the   life  of  a    Brahman,  thus  attaining   blissful 

*  immortality  ;  the  left,  severed  and  forsaken,  will,  like  the 
'  refuse  of  the  earth,  be  food  only  for  jackals  and  birds  of 
'  prey  ;  and  so  it  weeps.'  Charmed  with  the  ready  wit  of  the 
woman,  Krishna  revealed  himself,  and  showered  blessings 
upon  Mayurdhwaj  for  his  nobleness  of  character.  He  then 
introduced    Arjun    whose    horse   was    restored,    and   finally 


28  nilASrtR.        HISTORY    AND    ARCH/KOI.OGY. 

they  took  Mayurdluvnj  as  il.cir  guest  to  the  great  capital 
ol  llastin.ipur.  'llic  tank,  near  which  Arjun's  horse  is 
supposed  to  havo   hccn  tied,  is  still  called  the  '  Ghorbandha 

Talao.' » 

This  interesting  story  is  of  course  purely  imaginary,  but 
one  curious  result  of  the  tradition  connected  witli  Krishna's 
visit  is  that  the  use  of  the  saw  was  entirely  prohibited  in  the 
Chhaltisgarh  country,  and  was  only  introduced  under  the 
Maralha  rule  during  the  time  o(  Raja  Bimbaji.  Mr.  Chisholm 
iclls  us  that  formerly  evidence  of  this  was  found  in  all  old 
buildings,  the  beams  of  which  were  always  squared  with  a 
hatcliet.  It  has  been  moreover  the  general  belief  of  the 
people  of  Chhattisgarh  that  all  the  Haihaya  kings  had  a 
slender  mark  running  from  the  nose  up  the  skull  to  the 
back  of  the  head,  just  so  far  as  the  head  of  Mayurdhwaj  was 
sawn  before  Krishna  intervened. 

20.  In  spite  of  the  undoubted  antiquity   of  the  Haihaya 

family  and  the  legends  so  proudly  rela- 

Kn.iy  history.     The      ted  of  them  by  the  Chhaltisgarh  people, 

recent  research    has    definitely  proved 
that  they  did  not  enter  Chhattisgarh    until    about   the    lOlh 
century   A.D.     Prior   to   this    there  were  other  rulers  whom 
we   can    safely    trace  back  to    the   4ih    century   A.Q      The 
country    was  then    known   as   Kosala   or    Maha    Kosala,    or 
Daksliin    (South)  Kosala   to  distinguish   it  from  a  country  of 
the  same  name  in  the  north  towards  Oudh.     Maha   Kosala, 
it  is  said,  was  named  after  Kusa,  a  son  of   Rama  the  hero  of 
the  Rainayana,  as  Lahore  (Lavapur)was  named  alter  another 
son  named  Lava.     In  the  middle  of  the  4th  century  this  country 
was  ruled  by  two    kings.     One    named    Mahendra    held    ibe 
north,  while  the  suuthern   portion    known  as    Mahakantara 
(literally,    the   Great  Forest)   was  held    by    VyaghraTaja  or 
the  Tiger  king.     These  kings  are  mentioned  in  the  Allahabid" 
pillar  inscription  of  Samudra  Gupta  which  states  that  they  were 

*  thi»holin>  Seltlemeht  kepoit  of  iSbS,  paias.  42  to  45. 


HISTORY.  29 

captured  b^him  and  then  liberated.'  Samudra  Gupta 
was'the  son  of  Chandra  Gupta  I,  the  founder  of  the  early 
Gupta  dynasty  of  Pataliputra  or  Patna  and  of  the  Gupta  era 
(320  A.D.)  From  the  moment  of  his  accession,  Samudra 
Gupta  assumed  the  part  of  an  aggressively  ambitious  monarch, 
and  plunged  into  wars  which  occupied  many  years  of  an 
unusually  protracted  reign.  After  subjugating  the  Rajas  of 
the  Gangetic  plain,  he  embarked  on  an  adventurous  campaign 
in  the  remote  south,  and  marching  from  his  capital  (Patna) 
through  Chutia  Nagpur,  attacked  the  kingdoms  of  south 
Kosala  in  tl\gjrallpy  of  the.  Mahanadi  and  overthrew  Vyaghra- 
raja  and  Mahendra.  Still  advancing  southwards,  Samudra 
Gupta  subjugated  all  the  countries  down  to  Conjeeveram  south 
of  Madras,  and  then  returned  homewards  through  the  western 
part  of  the  Deccan  subduing  on  his  way  the  Maratha  country 
and  Khandesh.  No  attempt  was  made  to  effect  the  perma- 
nent annexation  of  these  southern  States.  But  the  Maha 
Kosala  kings,  apparently  considering  it  to  their  advantage  to 
enjoy  the  protection  of  a  great  monarch  like  Samudra  Gupta, 
continued  to  acknowledge  the  overlordship  of  the  Gupta 
dynasty  for  nearly  a  century  after  its  empire  had  broken  up. 
This  fact  is  inferred  from  an  inscription  recently  found  at 
Arang  in  the  Raipur  District  which  records  the  grant  of  a  j 
village  made  by  a  certain  Raja  Bhimsen  and  is  dated  in  llu 
Gupta  year  corresponding  vyith  the  end_of  the  6tlTij;entury  A  D. J 
The  charter  was  issued  from  the  banks  of  the  Son  river 
which  rises  near  the  Amarkantak  hills,  and  mentions  places 
which  Mr.  Hh-a  Lai  has  located  in  the  Raipur  District. 

21.  No  information  is  available  as  to  who  this  Bhimsen 
T-,     ^.  ,  was,  or  how  long  his  family  continued 

Ine  birpur  d3'nasty.  -^ 

to    rule  in    Maha    Kosala.     In  the   7th 

^entury  the  country  seems  to  have  passed  to  a  Buddhist  king 

who  made^  Bhandak   in   the    Chanda    District    his    capital. 

Bhandak  was  visited  by  the  Chinese  traveller  Hiuen    Tsiang 

in  639  A.D.  and   he  has  given   the  following'desciTption  of 

*  Fleet's  Gupta  Inscriptions,  page  12. 


XO  DII.ASrirH.       HISTORY    AND    ARriIj:OI.OGY. 

what    he  saw:— 'Tliis    country,  more    than  6000  //'  in  cir- 

•  cuit,  was  surrounded  by  mountains  and  was  a  succession 
'  of  woods  and  marslies,  its  capital  being  above  40  /i  in  circuit. 
'  The  soil  of  the  country  was  rich  and  fertile  ;  the  towns  and 

•  villages  were  close  together  ;  the  people  were  prosperous, 
« tall  of  stature  and  black  in  colour  ;  the  king  was  a  Kshatriya 
'  by  birth,  a  IJuddhist  by  religion,  and  of  noted  benevolence. 
'There  were  above  100  Buddhist  monasteries,  and  about 
'  10,000  Brethren,  all  Mahayanists.  Near  the  south  of  the  city 
<  (tliat  is.  apparently,  the  capital)  was  an  old  monastery  with 

•  an  Asoka  tope  where  Buddha  had  vanquished  Ththikas  by 
'  the  exhibition  of  supernormal  powers,  and  in  which  Nagar- 
'  juna  Pusa  had  afterwards  lodged.' 

A  branch  of  the  Bhandak  family  soon  after  settle_d-at 
Sirpur  on  the  banks  of  the  Mahanadi  in  the  Raipur  Dislrjct. 
It  is  possible  that  the  capital  being  situated  at  a  great  dis- 
tance, it  was  thought  desirable  to  send  a  representative  to 
the  Mahanadi  plain.  However  this  may  be,  it  did  not  take  long 
for  the  Sirpur  branch  to  become  independent  of  the  original 
house,  and  within  four  generations  they  acquired  the  sover- 
eignly of  the  whole  of  Maha  Kosala.  Tliey  adorned  their 
capital  with  beautiful  temples,  monasteries,  alms-houses 
and  gardens,  making  it  worthy  of  the  name  they  gave  it. 
But  by  the  reign  of  Tlvardeva  their  prosperity  was  at  its 
I  highest.  This  king  had  no  issue  and  the  crown  therefore 
i  passed  to  his  brother's  son.  The  next  king  was  Mahasiva 
Gupta  entitled  Balarjuna.  He  was  a  great  temple  builder, 
and  almost  all  the  inscriptions  found  at  Sirpur  eulogise  him. 
His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  king  of  Magadha.  When 
left  a  widow  she  constructed  the  superb  brick  shrine  known 
as  the  Lakshman  temple,  the  only  old  edifice  now  remain- 
ing  in    Sirpur   in  anything    like    a    fair   state  of  preserva- 


tion. 


«  A  ti   is  «bout    onc-fiftii  of  a    mile.     This   quotation    is   taken    from 
Walters  Yu.ui  Chwanij,  Vol.  II,  p.  230. 


HISTORY.  31 

f 

22.   Mahasiva    Gupta  was  perhaps  the  last  king   of  this 

dynasty   who   ruled    at    Sirpur.     His  j     ,  ^ 
The    Sharabhpur    dy-      g^^  sgems  to    have     been    ousted    by'    '^ 

nasty.  _-     -  -  -       •'    ! 

another  family,  and  to  have   fled  east- 
wards to   Vinltapura.  which  Mr.  Hira  Lai  has  identified  with 
Binka  in  the  Sonpur  State.     Of  the  new^  reigning  family  very     '^-'^ 
little  is  knovvnbeyond  the  names  of  two  kings,  Mahasudeva  and 
Mahajayaraja,  who  made  grants  of  villages  located  in  different  'J^^ 
parts  of  the  country,    indicating  that  at  least  the  tract  b'i"g-1.^. '« 
between  Bilaspur  and  Khariar  (north  and  south),  and  Raipur  ,     ) 
and  Sarangarh  (west  and  east)  was  in  their  possession.    These  ,, 
records  show  that  their  capital  was  Sharabhpur,  which  has  not 
yet  been  identified.     It  is  quite  possible,  however,  that  this  was    -.; 
merely  a  new  name  imposed  on  Sirpur,  the  capital  of  their  pre-        >^ 
decessors,  and  that  the    name    perished  with  the    short-lived 
dynasty  which  created  it.      Unfortunately  neither  the  inscrip- 
tions of  the  Sirpur  dynasty  nor  of  their  successors  are  dated, 
but  ihe  characters  in  which  ihey  are  written  belong  to  the  8th 
and  9th    centuries  A.D.     The  events  related  above   cannot, 
therefore,  have  taken  place  very  many  years  before  the  Haiha- 
yas  first  came  upon    the    scene,  and  conquered  the    country 
which  they  held  so  long. 

2^.  The  name  Haihayais  derived  from  'Ahihaya'  (snake- 
horse),  the  story  being   that  the   first 

The  Haihaya?. 

ancestor  of  this  line  of  kings  was  the 
issue  of  a  snake  and  a  mare.  These  kings  trace  their  origin 
to  Sahasrarjuna  or  Kartvlrya,  who  had  a  thousand  arms. 
The  family  was  a  very  ancient  one  and  is  mentioned  in  the 
Mahabharat.  These  Haihayas  were  known  as  Kalachuris, 
and  originally  ruled  the  Chedi  country  which  Justice  Pargi- 
ter  places  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Jumna,  from  the  river 
Cbambal  on  the  north-west  about  as  far  as  Karwi  (north- 
east of  Chitrakuta)  on  the  south-east.  Its  limit  southward 
was  at  first  the  plateau  and  the  hills  of  Bundelkhand.'  But 
gradually  the  frontier  was  pushed  forward  until  by  the 
^Bengal  Asiatic  Society's  Journal,  1895,  P2ge253. 


32  mi  ASPfR.        HISTORY     ANU    A  RCH-r  OJ.OGY. 

beginning  of  llic  lotli  century  A.D.  it  commanded  the  whole 
line  of  hills,  from  Amarkantak  to  beyond  the  Hasdo,  which 
imii.cdiatfly  abutted  on  the  Malianadi  plain.  In  a  Katanpur 
inscription  of  1 1 14  A.I),  it  is  stated  tliat  among  the  Haihaya 
princes  who  ruled  in  Chedi  was  a  certain  Kokalia.  (His 
appro.ximatc  dateis  875  A.D.)  He  had  18  sons,  the  first-born 
ofwiiom  became  ruler  of  Tripuri,  the  capital  of  Chedi,  while 
the  remaining  brothers  were  made  lords  of  subordinate  estates 
{maiuialas).  The  southernmost  of  these  mandalas  were 
Komo,'  Tuman  and  probably  Kosgain — the  three  ancient 
towns  wliose  ruined  temples  and  tanks  amid  the  forest 
and  hills  north  of  the  Mahanadi  plain  have  long  been  a 
puzzle  to  archaeologists.  Tuman,  we  learn  from  the  same 
inscription,  eventually  passed  to  a  descendant  of  the  Haihaya 
holder  of  this  inandnla,  whose  name  was  Kalingaraja  ;  and 
to  him  is  to  be  ascribed  the  credit  of  first  establishing  the 
Chedi  power  in  what  we  now  call  the  plains  of  Chhattisgarh. 
'  He  abandoned  his  ancestral  land,'  we  read,  '  and  acquired 
'  by  his  two  arms   the   country   of   Dakshin    Kosala.     Since 

•  Tummana   had  been  made  a  royal   residence  by  his  ances- 

*  tors,  therefore  residing  there  he  increased  his  fortune 
'  causing  the  destruction  of  his  enemies.'  We  need  not 
suppose  that  Kalingaraja  imtiiediately  severed  all  connection 
with  the  central  power  at  Tripuri  when  he  first  obtained  a 
foothold  in  the  Mahanadi  plain.  Probably  for  some  genera- 
tions the  suzerainty  of  the  head  of  the  northern  Chedi  king- 
dom was  at  any  rate  formally  recognised,  while  Kalingaraja 
and  his  son  and  grandson  continued  to  extend  their  own 
authority  below  the  hills.  It  is  difficult  to  define  the  extent 
of  Kalingaraja's  conquests.  So  far  as  we  can  gather,  he  and 
bis  son  and  successor  Kamalraja  merely  made  extensive 
raids  from  Tummana  and  so  brought  a  large  area  of 
country  into  nominal  submission.  They  did  not  probably 
attempt  to  oust  the  local  chiefs  among  whom  the  new  country 

n.,,f,Jm\v*^?T.7"'^'''''''P"''"'^^^'y'*y  "°^"^  and  south  of  the  famous 
fi^  w  r.h.  ^h'  \  "'  """"•  '"'^  "^  l.eadquarter.    may  be  safely  id^ntT- 

fieU  wuh  the  old  ,  u.ucd  town  ot  Dhanpur  iu  the  Pendra  zamiudari. 


tfi^"^^^ 


OLD    TEMPLE    AT    PALI 


Cc.V...,  J\>--j. 


HISTORY.  33 

was  already  partitioned,  and  who  on  acknowledging  the  new 
suzerain  retained  the  same  semi-independence  as  before. 

24.  But  the  son  of  Kamalraja  and  grandson  of  Kalingaraja 
by  name  Ratnadeva  (I)  took,  when  he 

Founding  of  Ratanpur. 

came  to  power,  a  momentous  step  in 
the  history  of  Chhattisgarh.  Not  content  with  making  Tuman 
'pleasant  to  the  eye'  by  constructing  temples  to  Vankesa,  to 
Ratnesvara  and  other  gods,  with  '  a  garden  containing  innu- 
*  merable  flowers  and  beautiful  fruit  and  a  charming  high 
'  mango  grove  crowded  with  palatial  buildings,' he  determined 
to  push  his  fortunes  in  the  plains,  and  about  the  year  1050 
A.D.  founded  the  now  famous  town  of  Ratanpur.  From  this 
time  the  rulers  of  the  Tuman  ma«^a/a  must  have  become  vir- 
tually independent  sovereigns.  It  is  probable  that  Ratnadeva  I 
did  not  at  once  break  with  the  kings  of  Tripuri,  for  we  learn 
that  lie  married  a  daughter  of  the  Komo  chieftain,  who,  as  we 
have  seen,  held  one  of  the  adjoining  inandalas  of  the  older 
Ghedi  kingdom.  Bat  it  is  quite  clear  that  at  the  time  the  in- 
scription was  composed  (A.D.  1114^  from  which  this  informa- 
tion has  been  drawn,  the  chiefs  of  Tuman  had  developed  into 
independent  kings  of  Ratanpur.  The  expansion  of  their  power 
was  very  rapid.  Nothing  much  was  eflfected  under  Ratnadeva 
I,  and  his  son  Prithvideva  I  (circa  1090  A.D.).  Of  the  latter 
we  know  no  more  than  that  he  built  a  temple  to  Siva  in  Tuman 
and  constructed  a  large  tank  in  Ratanpur.  Tradition  tells  too 
of  a  ten  years'  war  waged  about  this  time  with  a  wild  mountain 
chief  named  Ghughus,  possibly  a  Gond,  who  infested  the 
hills  quite  close  to  Ratanpur  ;  and  this  foe  (whose  name  still 
lives  in  the  Ghughsa  Pahar)  doubtless  occupied  attention 
near  at  home  and  prevented  expeditions  of  aggrandisement. 
But  under  Prithvldeva's  son  and  successor  Jajalladeva  I 
great  things  were  accomplished.  He  still  it  appears  kept  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  parent  house  in  Tripuri,  but  in  his 
own  right  entered  into  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Kanauj  and 
Jejabhukti  or  Bundelkhand,  while  the  chiefs  of  the  mindalas 
not  only  of  Dakshin  Kosala  but  of  countries  as  far  afield  as 

F 


^4  Itll.ASI'UU.       HISTORY    AND    ARCHiEOLOGY. 

Waiiijgarli,  Lilnji,  Ijhandara  and  Kimedi  paid  him  an  annual 
tril)Utc.  This  king  also,  it  appears,  built  the  famous  temple 
iuul  tank  at  Pali  on  the  road  between  I'uman  and  Ratanpur. 
Jajalladcva  I  was  succeeded  in  turn  by  his  son  Ratnadeva  II 
and  grandson  Pritvldeva  II,  whose  reigns  were  chiefly  remark- 
able for  the  successes  obtained  on  tlieir  behalf  by  a  family  of 
military  adventurers  (the  most  famous  of  whom  was  Jagapal), 
who  rendered  them  service  for  three  successive  generations. 
I  ho  record  of  tlicir  exploits  is  preserved  in  the  Rajim 
inscription  of  1145  A.D.  Under  these  kings  the  Komo 
uinudala  was  wrested  from  the  allied  kingdom  of  Tripuri 
from  which  the  Ratanpur  Haihayas  themselves  had  sprung, 
and  Jagapal  extended  the  Ratanpur  authority  as  far  as  Drug, 
Sihfiwa,  Ranker,  and  Kandadongar  (in  the  south  of  Bindra- 
Nawagarh),  beyond  the  southern  confines  of  the  present 
Raipur  District.  In  all,  the  Haihaya  conquests  of  the  I2th 
century  would  seem  to  have  encompassed  an  enormous  area. 
Their  influence  may  be  said  to  have  extended  from  Amarkan- 
tak  to  beyond  the  Godavari,  and  from  the  confines  of  Berar 
ill  the  west  to  the  boundaries  of  Orissa  in  the  east. 

25.   Now  this  hegemony  was  of  the  flimsiest  kind.     The 
'  conquered  '  countries  for  the  most  part 

The    consolidation    of       ..o„,„:.,„j    •  ,     .i       i_        j  r  n      •    j 

the  kingdom.  remauied  m    the  hands   of  really  inde- 

pendent Rajas  who  tendered  only  a 
nominal  allegiance  to  Ratanpur.  But  the  extent  of  the 
Haihaya  authority  gave  the  successors  of  Prithvldeva  11  a 
long  period  of  rest  from  external  attack,  and  thus,  it  appears, 
enabled  them  to  consolidate  their  power  nearer  home.  It 
seems  certain  that  this  process  consisted  in  the  formation  of  a 
number  of  chatirasis  (administrative  units  of  84  villages) 
which  were  made  over  to  immediate  dependents  of  the 
Haihaya  kings.  This  was  done  of  course  at  the  expense  of 
the  petty  local  chieftains,  mostly  Gonds,  whom  at  first  the 
Haihayas  had  been  content  to  tolerate.  In  accordance  with 
this  policy  relatives  and  dependents  of  the  Rajput  kings 
were  gradually  introduced,  practically  as  government  officiars, 


HISTORY.  35 

to  the  general  control  of  all  the  country  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Ratanpur,  while  only  the  more  distant  tracts  were  left  in 
the  hands  of  their  old  holders  as  tributary  chiefs.  The 
change  of  course  was  gradual.  It  was  one  thing  to  demand 
acquiescence  from  the  old  local  chiefs  and  another  to  uproot 
them  altogether.  But- the  process  continued  steadily  during 
the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  until  not  only  were  the  conven- 
tional 18  chanrdsis  established  north  of  the  Seonath,  but  the 
same  number  were  formed  south  of  it  through  the  enterprise 
of  a  junior  member  of  the  Ratanpur  house.  This  prince,  by 
nameSimhana,  established  himself  in  semi-independent  state 
in  Raipur.  As  an  inscription  (1414  A.D.)  at  Khalari  puts  it 
he  '  conquered  18  gar  lis  of  adversaries' ;  which  may  be  taken 
to  mean  that  he  crossed  the  Seonath,  ousted  a  number  of  local 
chieftains,  alread}'  no  doubt  in  formal  subjection  to  the  Ratan- 
pur throne,  and  established  a  new  administration  with  its 
centre  at  Raipur,  just  as  his  ancestors  had  issued  from  Chedi 
and  established  the  kingdom  of  Ratanpur.  It  does  not  concern 
us  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  the  Raipur  branch.  But  their 
establishment  beyond  the  Seonath  is  clear  proof  of  the  rapid 
development  of  the  Haihaya  power  in  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 
turies. More  than  this  we  cannot  say,  for  the  course  of 
events  during  this  period  is  very  vague  and  the  inscriptional 
evidence  is  scanty  and  disconnected. 

26.  To  return  to  the  line  of  Ratanpur  kings,   Prithvldeva 
II  we  learn  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Jhe  kings  of  Ratan-      j^jalladeva  II  in  whose   reign  a    mem- 
ber  of   the  family    built  a    temple    at 
Seorlnarayan  in  which  a  slab  is    found    with    an    inscription 
dated  in  the  Chedi  era  917  or  1165  A.D.     A  Brahman  also 
built  a  temple    of  Siva   at   Mallar   with    a  stone   inscription 
dated  1 167  A.D.    J aj alia  II  is    called   in  this    inscription  the 
ruler  of  Tummana   which    shows    that,  though  no  longer  the 
royal  capital,  Tummana   retained  its  reputation    as  the  earlier 
home  of  the  Chhattlsgarh   princes.     The  son  and    successor 
of  J  aj  all  a  II  was  Ratnadeva  III  in  whose  reign  an  inscription 


3^> 


nii.Asr'UK.     msTOKY  and  arcii.kology 


wa«;  set  up  in  a  temple  at  Kliarod  in  the  year  ii8r  A.D. 
Mc  was  succeeded  by  iiis  son  Prithvidcva  III  in  whose 
reign  one  Devanaga  built  a  temple  at  Samba  and  left 
an  inscription  there,  dated  1190  A.D.  But  here  inscrip- 
tional  evidence  of  the  succession  to  the  senior  branch  at 
Katanpur  abruptly  ceases,  and  for  the  rest  it  must  suffice 
to  quote,  for  what  it  is  worth,  the  Brahmanical  lists  of  the 
ilailiaya  kings  preserved  in  Ratanpur.  We  begin  arbitrarily 
with  lihanusingh  who,  we  must  suppose  from  the  date 
assigned  to  him,  was  an  early  if  not  the  immediate  successor 
of  Prithvideva  111,  the  last  king  mentioned  in  inscriptions. 

Circa 

Bhanusingh  ,,, 

Narsinghdeva  ... 

Bhusinghdeva 

Pratabsinghdeva 

Jayasinghdeva 

Dharmasinghdeva 

Jagannathsingh 

Vn'asinghdeva 

Kalmaldeva 

Sankar  Sahai 

Mohan  Sahai 

Dadu  Sahai 

Puiushottam  Sahai 

Bilhar  Sahai 

Kalyan  Sahai 

Lakshman  Sahai 

Sankar  Sahai 

Kuinud  or  Mukund  Sahai 

Tribhuvan  Sahai 

Jagamohan  Sahai 

Adati  Sahai 

Kanjit  Sahai 

Takht  Singh 

Raisinglideva 


1200 

A.D. 

1221 

M 

.    1251 

>» 

..   J276 

»> 

..   I319 

» 

••   1347 

5> 

..   1369 

5» 

..   1407 

>> 

..   1426 

M 

..   1436 

>> 

•    1454 

>» 

..   1472 

»> 

..   1497 

tt 

..   I519 

n 

..   1546 

>) 

..   1583 

n 

••   159I 

i) 

..   1606 

i> 

..   1617 

>> 

..   1632 

5> 

..   1645 

)> 

..   1659 

>> 

..   1685 

» 

..   1699 

>> 

HISTORY.  37 

Circa 
Sardarsingh  ...  ...      1720  A.D. 

Raghunalhsingh  ...  ...      1732     ., 

Tliis  list  gives  on  an  average    21  years  to  a     generation, 
and  at  any  rate  from  1500  A.D.    may  be  accepted  as    accur- 
ate enough.     There    are    two    stone    inscriptions    of   Bahar 
Sahai,  one  in  the  Mahamaya  temple  of   Ratanpur  (undated); 
the  other  from   Kosgain.'     The  latter   was  dated  but    unfor- 
tunately the  date  is  now    broken  off.     From  it    we  learn  that 
there  was    during  this    reign    a    Muhammadan  eruption  from 
the  north,  which  the   Raja  successfully    resisted  driving  back, 
the  invaders.     As  general   history,  however,    does  not  show 
that  any    Muhammadan   army    ever   visited    this    part  of  the 
country,  the  '  Pathans  '  whom  Bahar  Sahai  defeated  must  have 
been  a  small    force  under   some  needy    adventurer  in  search 
of  plunder.     It   is    not    till    the    reign   of  Bahar  Sahai's  son 
Kalyan    Sahai,    about    1550    A.D.,    that    the    overpowering 
influence  of  Muhammadan  sovereignty  extended  into  a  region 
so  land-locked    and   isolated    as    Chhatilsgarh.     The    annual 
crowd   of  pilgrims  who     flocked    from  the  upper    provinces 
through  Ratanpur  to  Jagannath,  must  often  have  spoken  in 
glowing  language  of  the  pomp  and  splendour  of  the   Mughal 
court  of  Delhi.     Whether  excited  by    curiosity,  or  impelled 
by  fear  lest  his  kingdom  should  be  absorbed  it  is    impossible 
to  decide ;    but  Kalyan  Sahai  determined  on    proceeding   lo 
Delhi  and   having   audience  of  the  great   Akbar.     He  made 
over  the  management  of  his  country  to   his  son    Lakshman 
Sahai  and,  accompanied  by  a  large  body  of  followers,  started 
on  his  mission.      It  is   said  that   he   was    absent  about  eight 
years,   and   returned   to  Ratanpur  laden  with  honours,  and 
invested  with  the  full  rights  of  Raja  and  a  high  sounding  title. 
27.  A  'Revenue  Book,'    said  to    be    of  Kalyan  Sahai's 
reign,  was    shown  to   the    Settlement 

The  internal   adminis- 
tration of  the  Haihaya      Officer  of    1 868   and    contained    niuch 
kingdom.  .  .  .     _  .  i        ^       ^i 

interesting      inlormation      about     the 

^  Now  in  the  Nagpur  Museum. 


jg  nil  ASI'I'K.       HISTORY    AND    ARCHEOLOGY. 

coiidilion  of  Chhaltisgarh  under  Hailiayavansf  rule.  The 
Katanpur  government,  including  Raipur,  then  comprised,  it 
was  slated,  48  i^rtr/is  or  cliattrdsis  yielding  a  revenue  of  6\ 
lakhs  of  rupees,  which,  considering  the  relative  value  of 
money  in  those  early  days,  indicates  a  large  share  of  pros- 
perity. The  jurisdiction  of  the  Haihayas  extended  over  a 
very  wide  country.  Kawardha,  Khairagarh  and  the  other 
I.  RSmRarh.  zamlndaris  skirting  the  western  hills  had 

a.  r.iilal)Karh  (now  .      .1       /-       j   j  .         r 

randaria).  lapsed  it  appears  to  the  Gond  dynasty  ot 

I  Am^arhChauki.  Mandlfi.      But    in  addition  to  the   Chhat- 
5-  •'■<^'ar.  tlsearh '  proper  which  they  held   in   their 

6.  Kharinr.  &  t^      l  J 

7.  I'liuijhar.  own  hands,   the  neighbouring    hill    states 
9   Karond(Kaliihandi).noted    in  the   margin  all    paid    tribute   to 

10.  bambaipur.  ^i^^^^^       ThtsQ    States  were     noted  2    as 

1 1,  rwlna. 

13.  Siiigiibiuim.  subordinates  or   rather  tributaries   of  the 

13.  Cliandarpur. 

14.  Sakti.  Haihayavansi  kings,  that  is,  as  within 
\b  Kaifna. '  their  hegemony  but  not  incorporated 
17.  Siirguja.                 jj^  ji^g  gj.g^^  under  their  direct  control. 

^  Considerable  ambiguity  is  involved  in  the  use  of  the  term  '  Chliattis- 
garh."  In  the  current  meaning  oftiie  word  it  includes  not  only  the  three  Dis- 
tricts of  Hil.'ispur,  Raipur  and  Drug  with  all  their  zamindaris,  but  also  the 
wide  tract  oi  Clihattisgarh  Feudatory  States. 

In  Haihaya  times,  as  explained  in  the  text,  the  Chhattlsgarh  (if  the 
term  was  used  at  all)  can  have  denoted  only  the  two  score  or  more  of  petty 
chauitlsis  under  relatively  close  control,  as  distinct  /ro»t  the  large  tract  of 
outlying  country  in  which  tributary  Chiefs  retained  a  semi-independence. 

In  Maralha  times  this  older  meaning  of  the  word  seems  to  have  been 
retained  At  any  rate  Blunt  in  1795  expressly  distinguishes  at  least  two  Feuda- 
tories (K.^nker  and  Bastar)  subordinate  to  Katanpur  from  the  '  Chhattlsgarh' 
of  his  time.  With  Sir  R.  Jenkins  we  get  confusion.  He  seems  to  hesitate 
bctweru  the  new  meaning  and  the  old.  In  one  place  he  writes  that  the  tribute 
'  of  the  zaniind.ir--  of  Clihattisgarh  and  Gondwana'was  reduced  to  Rs.  13,432. 
An  examination  of  the  text  will  show  that  the  '  Chhattlsgarh'  here  referred 
to  excludes  not  only  Bastar,  Kalahandi  and  Kanker  (which  constituted  his 
Oondw.ina1  and  all  the  Khaloti  zamindaris  (Nandgaon,  Khairagarh  and 
Dongaigarh,  etc.),  but  also  Fandaria  and  Kawardha.  It  therefore  comprised 
outside  the  modern  klu'tlia  country  only  the  petty  estates  '  Sonakhan,  etc.,)  in 
the  crook  of  the  Mah.inadi  and  the  S  Kawar  zamindaris  in  the  north-east  of 
Bilitspur.  This  is  the  Haihaya  meaning  of  the  word.  But  on  the  other  hand 
the  phrase  '  zamind.iris  of  Chhattlsgarh  '  is  used  by  Sir  K.  Jenkins  in  parti- 
cular reference  even  to  Kalahandi  and  the  Khaloti  estates  ;  and  is  applied  by 
him  Rcnerically  to  all  the  estates  whether  cliaunJsis  or  feudatories  under  the 
Raipur  Superintendent  with  whom  engagements  were  made  in  1821.  This 
last  meaning  is  the  one  now  current. 

The  name  Chhattlsgarh  seems  to  be  of  comparatively  modern  origin. 
It  is  entirely  unknown  in  inscriptions. 

"  Sec  Hewitt's  Raipur  Settlement  Report  of  1869,  para.  56. 


HISTORY 


39 


The  army    maintained  by    Kalyan  Sahai   was  not  of   a 

formidable  character.  The  following    details  of  its  strength 

are  given :  — 

Swordsmen  ...  ...  •••     2°°° 

Daggermen  ...  •••  ...      5000 

Matchlockmen  ...  —  •••     3^00 

Archers  ...  ...  -     2600 

Horsemen  ...  ...  -     10°° 


Total  ...    14,200 

There  was  also  an  establishment  of  116  elephants. 
Such  a  force  was  fully  adequate  for  the  maintenance  of 
internal  order,  and  considerably  greater  than  could  be 
brought  together  by  any  of  the  surrounding  chiefs. 

28.  This  '  Revenue  Book,'  as  it  is  called,   contains  the 
only  native  reference  known  to  us  bear- 

The  Chhattisgarh.  .  ,        .    ^  ,,••.»•  e 

mg  upon  the  internal  administration  ot 
the  HaihayavansI  kingdom.     The  barren  list  of  kings  inter- 
spersed with  tales  of  huge  conquest,  which  forms   the  bulk  of 
the  history  of  Chhattisgarh,  gives  by  contrast  an   additional 
value  to  this  short  account.     The  book    (from  which   quota- 
tions were  freely  made  in  the  first  Settlement  Reports  of  Rai- 
pur  and  Bilaspur)  is  itself  no  longer  in  existence,  and  we  are 
tjierefore  unable  to  test    its  genuineness  as   a    contemporary 
production  of  the  16th  century.     But  as  the  earliest  record 
of  the  traditions  of  iriaihayavansi  rule  it  is  of  the  first  import- 
ance.    With  its  assistance,  and  by  inference  from  the  many 
relics  of  older  times  still   traceable   in   the   District,  we  can 
reconstruct  in  rough  outline  the  Haihaya  organisation  of  the 
country.     We  find,  within   Chhattisgarh   proper   as  distinct 
from    the   outlying   tributaries,    a    curiously    well-developed 
administrative  system  ;  a  regular  official  hierarchy  centering 
in  the  king  and  broadening  down   through  several  grades  to 
the    headman  in    charge   of   individual    villages — the   village 
being  then,    as   always,    the    administrative  unit.     The  chief 
administrative   officials   who    dealt   directly    with    the   king 


40 


BILASPUR.       HISTORY    AND    ARCHiT.OLOGY. 


f 


3 


■.^< 


WLTC  known  gciicially  as  Divvans,  each  of  whom  was  in 
cliar^'c  of  a  separate  ^'aih.  These  gar/is  were  more  com- 
monly known  as  chanrdsis  (tracts  of  84  villages)  though 
several  of  them  were  only  bedlisis  (of  42  villages)  or  even 
chatihisis  (of  24  villages).^ 

In  the  Revenue  Book  48  garh^  were  noted.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  fullest  list  now  extant  of  those  situated  nortli  of 
the  Seonath  river  in  the  kingdom  of  Ratanpur  proper: — 

Villages. 

1.  Ratanpur 

2.  Maro 
Bijaipur 

2.     L'lrmi 
3      Ram  gar  h 

4.  Ranjanmahaur 

5.  Mailwar 
<.6.     Takhatpur     ... 

1.  Nawagarh      .. 

2.  Dewarbija    ... 

3.  Patharia 
Pandarbhatha 
Mungell 
Pandarbhatha  Bantargarh 

^  I  7-     Malda 
\J>-     Dcwarhat 

5.  Kharaudgarh 

6.  Kotgarh 
,   i^    fi.     Madanpur     ... 

S  E"-^  -'•     Umreli 

*^-§   1^3.     Nawagarh    ... 

8.  Kanluhlgarh... 

9.  Kosgagarh    ... 

10.  Upror.'.garh ... 

11.  Laphagarh     ... 
I-       Kendagarh   .. 


ICfl 


•e  14- 

6. 


J5^ 


360 

354 
40 
84 
42 
24 
12 

124 
42 
84 
24 
42 
42 
42 
24 
24 

145 
84 
67 

34 
52 
84 
220 
84 

2C0 

84 


•tor  these  terms  see  Baden-Powell's  ludian  Village  Coinmun 


ity,  p,  i( 


HISTORY. 

13- 

Matingarh    ... 

14- 

Sonthlgarh  ... 

15- 

Okhargarh    ... 

1 6. 

Semariagarh... 

17- 

Kanrikarkati,  2  garhs 

i8. 

Pendra 

41 

Villages. 

84 
84 
32 
84 

700 
84 

There  are  some  variant  lists  of  these  '  Forts.'  All  of  them 
are  liable  to  be  partially  discredited  because  the  compiler  has 
felt  compelled  to  limit  his  list  to  18  forts  on  either  side  cf 
the  Seonath.  But  this  number  was  merely  conventional.  We 
have  already  seen  in  the  Ratanpur  inscription  of  11 14  A.D. 
how  Kokalla  had  18  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  became  king 
of  Tripuri,  while  each  of  his  brothers  received  a  subordinate 
estate  (or  mandola).  So  too  according  to  tradition,  there 
were  18  forts  in  the  kingdom  of  Sambalpur  which  was  for 
some  time  known  as  '  Aiharagarh.'  Again  Ratanpur  was 
credited  with  18  forts  and  so  too  the  separated  kingdom  of 
Raipur.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  number  of  garhs  was 
constantly  fluctuating.  These  kingdoms  at  no  time  neces- 
sarily contained  only  18,  any  more  than  \hQ  garh  itself  (or 
chaurasi  as  it  was  more  commonly  called)  necessarily  con- 
tained 84  villages,  or  the  smaller  barhon,  to  which  we  shall 
presently  refer,  necessarily  contained  exactly  12  villages. 

29.  Subordinate  to  the   Dlwan    who  administered  the 
garh  were  the   Daos  who  administered 

The  official  hierarchy.  r^i       »       , 

the  barhons.  The  barJions  were  groups 
usually  of  twelve,  but  often  of  only  five  villages.  As  the  Rdj 
was  divided  for  administrative  purposes  mio  garhs,  so  the  garh 
was  divided  into  barhons.  The  former  existence  of  the  Daos 
is  being  rapidly  forgotten  ;  for  they  were  ousted  wholesale 
under  the  first  British  Superintendent  of  Chhattlsgarh  owing 
to  the  abuse  of  this  office  by  the  Marathas,  who  made  a  prac- 
tice of  giving  the  barhons  to  needy  Brahmans.  But  traces  of 
this  old  tenure  still  survive,  especially  in  the  zamlndaris  {e.g., 
in    Pendra  where  the  barhons  were  only  broken  up  in  1881). 

G 


^2  IIII.ASPIJR.       HISTORY    AND    ARCH^,OLOGY. 

Subordinate  lastly  to  the  Dao  were  the  f>aonlias—\\\Q  village 
headmen— who  dealt  direct  with  the  rank  and  file  of  the  ten- 
antry,  and  so  formed  the  lowest   grade  in  the  administrative 
hierarchy.     The  prime  duty  of  this  official  staff  of  Dlwans, 
Daos   and  ^aoittias    consisted  in   the  proper   collection    and 
transmission  of  the  revenue.      I  his  revenue  was  paid  by  the 
husbandmen  and  was  appropriated  by  the  Raja.     The  inter- 
mediate official  classes  were  simply  auihorised  to  finger  it  and 
pass   it  on,  receiving  presumably  some  small  rebate  on  the 
amount  of  their  collections.'    Thus  they  were  in  the  last  resort 
officials  and  officials  only.     They   possessed    no  lien  upon  or 
legal  title  to    the    areas    whether  large  or  small  entrusted  to 
their  charge.   Each  office  was  impartible  and  non-transferable. 
It  could  be  held  only  by  a  single  person  and  by  him  only  with 
the  approval  of  the  sovereign.     But,  as  always  in  the  East, 
lapse  of  time  gave  rise  to  customary  rights  which  in  the  end 
revolutionised  tlic  position   of  tliis  large  official    class.     In 
the    first    place,   every    office    became  hereditary,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  so  much  was  conceded  to  the  origin  of  the  tenure 
that  its    transmission    was    still    limited    to  a  single  person. 
Thus  primogeniture  was  introduced.  This  principle  has  long 
been  recognised  in  modern  times  in  the  case  of  the  zamln- 
dars  or  Diwans.     But  it  also  held  good  of  the  other  classes. 
The  recorded  custom  in  Kori,  Kargi  and  other  barhons  proves 
that    the    L)i}o$    succeeded  one  another  by  the  rule  of  primo- 
geniture ;  while  as  to  gaontias  the  case  is  even  clearer,  for  we 
have  it  on  record  that  as  late  as  1867  the    practice  of  succes- 
sion by    primogeniture    was  in  their    case  almost  ubiquitous. 

».X    lair  p.-tiallel  to  this  system  is   noticed    in   Hunter's  Orista,  Vol.  II, 
p.  26S.     •  The  Hindu  plan  of  managing  the  land-revenue  passed  to   us  intact, 

•  the  Company  simply  stepping  into  the  place  of  the  Khurdha  family  as  Lord 
'  of  the  I)f  main.     Under  the  Native  regime  the  Prince  or  his  Prime  Minister 

•  administered  it  by  means  of  ten  great  Fief-Holders  (Qiladars)  each  of  whom 

•  had  a   dc6nite   area    under  his  charge.     Kach    of  these  ten  Fiefs  was  sub- 

•  divided  into  minor  jurisdictions  termed  Forts  \_Gaths)  and  the  lands  of  each 
'  Fort    included   a    number   of   villages.     The     Prince  or  his  Frime  Minister 

•  received  the  revenue  from  the  ten  Holders  incapitc  of  Fiefs  ;  the  hief-Hold- 
'  ers  collected  it  from  the  Heads  of  Forts  within  their  respective  jurisdic- 
'  tions  ;  the  Heads  of  Forts   gatheied    it  from    the  various  Heads  of  Villages. 

•  and  the  latter  levied  it  from  the  Husbandmen.' 


HISTORY.  43 

Secondly,  each  official  in  his  degree  was  conceded  a  very 
wide  discretion  in  administering  his  charge.  This  carried 
with  it  the  power  to  appoint  and  dismiss  his  own  subordi- 
nates resulting  at  once  in  the  development  of  family  influ- 
ence and  the  reservation  of  numerous  posts  by  the  officer  in 
whose  gift  they  lay  for  the  maintenance  of  the  cadets  of  his 
family.  The  king  himself  set  them  the  example.  It  was  for 
him  a  natural  course  to  provide  for  his  relatives  by  the  grant 
of  a  chaurdsi,  and  at  least  one  instance  of  this  is  on  record, 
showing  that  one  Sarvadeva,  a  younger  brother  of  Prithvldeva 
I,  obtained  the  chaurdsi  of  Sonthi  '  as  his  share  of  the  pat- 
rimony.' So  too  the  holder  of  the  garh  found  room  for  his 
relatives  in  the  barJwns  of  his  estate,  while  the  Daos  in  their 
turn  had  the  individual  villages  within  their  gift.  Even  the 
gaontia  would  within  his  sphere  have  tenants'  holdings  to 
distribute.  In  many  ways  we  may  suppose  that  this  system 
led  to  harmonious  working  between  the  different  grades, 
and  possibly  it  was  deliberately  encouraged  for  that  reason. 
It  is  certainly  remarkable  that,  even  in  the  essential  matter  of 
revenue  collection,  the  king  should  have  made  no  attempt  to 
deal  direct  with  the  village  headman,  and  acquiesced  in  the 
mediation  of  Dao  and  Dlwan  in  spite  of  the  wider  field  for 
misappropriation  opened  up  by  this  protracted  transmission. 
Lastly,  there  was  the  customary  development  of  the  perqui- 
sites of  office— the  collections  made  on  every  occasion  public 
and  private  when  a  reasonable  excuse  arose  for  appealing  to 
caste  or  religious  feeling. 

As  a  result  of  all  this  it  became  impossible  that  men 
who  succeeded  by  inheritance  to  a  lucrative  official  position 
and  wide  administrative  powers,  over  a  clearly  defined  area, 
much  of  which  was  held  in  subordinate  capacities  by 
creations  of  their  family  influence,  should  long  continue  to 
regard  themselves  as  merely  government  officials.  It  is 
certain  that  long  before  the  Haihaya  power  fell  the  quondam 
official  had  been  converted  into  a  hereditary  occupant  of  a 
certain    area    with   prescriptive  rights  at  least  as  definite  as 


^^  nil  AspfN.      IIIST..KV   Axr)   ARCir.TOi.nr.v. 

were  his  duties.  Kxaclly  how  far  their  status  had  been 
defined  by  the  close  of  the  Rajput  rule  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
Hut  it  is  curious  that  the  one  echo  that  we  get  of  the  position 
of  affairs  at  that  time  preserves  the  record  of  the  official 
status  of  the  great  landholders  and  at  the  same  time  indicates 
iheir  possession  of  powers  usually  associated  with  a  permanent 
title.  For  we  read  in  Sir  R.  Jenkins  Report  of  1826  on  the 
Nagpur  territories  that  all  the  evidence  it  was  then  possible 
to  collect  indicated  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  kingdom  was 
under  the  Maihaya  kings  partitioned  among  '  the  members 
of  the  reigning  family  and  the  officers,  civil  and  mihtary,  of  the 
State,  ii'//(J  again  partitioned  it  amongst  their  immediate  depen- 
dants' A  memory  therefore  of  the  official  origin  of  every 
landholding  tenure  seems  to  have  been  preserved  throughout 
the  Rajput  rule.  But  as  the  central  authority  grew  weaker 
and  weaker  in  the  17th  and  early  iSth  centuries  we  may  be 
sure  that  the  pretensions  of  the  landholding  officers  grew 
stronger  and  stronger,  leading  the  greatest  of  them  in  some 
cases  to  break  out  in  open  rebellion  against  their  master. 
This  was  rendered  possible  not  only  by  their  personal 
family  influence  within  their  estate  (if  we  may  call  it  so),  but 
by  the  remarkable  fact  that  each  of  the  Dlwans,  and  indeed 
many  of  the  Daos  also,  possessed  fortified  headquarters. 
That  this  was  so  in  the  latter  years  of  Rajput  rule  may  be 
inferred  from  the  use  of  the  term  Clihattis  Garh  which  seems 
to  have  come  into  use  about  this  time.  Its  significance  is 
obvious.  Each  official  must  have  possessed  some  sort  of 
fighting  force — more  especially  if  (as  is  highly  probable)  the 
Diwan  was  responsible  not  only  for  the  revenue  of  his 
chaurasi  but  also  for  the  raising  of  the  local  militia  in  times  of 
war.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  a  wide  diver- 
gence eventually  arose  between  the  theory  and  the  practice 
of  llaihaya  administration,  thus  paving  the  way  for  further 
developments  in  Maratliu  days,  and  for  the  general  conferring 
of  proprietary  rights  when  the  country  passed  to  the  hands 
of  the  British. 


HISTORY. 


45 


30.  The    i-eigii    of  Kalyan    Sahai    marked   the    fullest 
developmeut  of  the  Haihaya  power.   He 
Haihaya  ruTe^    °^    '^^     ^^^  succeeded  by   a  number  of   kings 
whose     uneventful  reigns    formed,    it 
appears,  a  long  period  of  stagnation  and  of  gradual  deteriora- 
tion.     We    read  in   the  Brahmanical  histories  of  no  incident 
of  political  importance  during  the  last  century    and   a  half  of 
Rajput  rule,  and    its    closing   incidents   can    soon    be    told. 
Takhatsingh,  who  reigned  about  AD.  1685,  built  a  rude  palace 
at  Takhatpur  mow  in  ruins)  and  a  temple,  and  instituted  the 
weekly  market  there  which  is  still  an  important   gathering. 
Rajsinghdeva,  his  son,   ruled  from  A.D,  1689  to    1712    and 
built  a  new  palace  at  the  eastern  limit  of  Ratanpur.     He  also 
excavated  a  large  tank  near  by,  ornamented  it  with  masonry 
steps,  and  eventually  gave  his    name  to  this    portion    of  the 
town.     But  he  is  chiefly  remembered  for  the  intrigues  which 
in  the  absence  of  a  direct  heir,  darkened  the  later  years  of  his 
reign.      It  was  generally  understood  that  Mohansingh  of  the 
Raipur  house  had  been  selected  to  succeed  him,  and  the  king 
himself  openly    exhibited   the    greatest    preference    for   this 
young  man.     But  Rajsinghdeva's  end  was   somewhat  sudden 
being  due  to  a  fall  from  his  horse.      He  sent  for  Mohansino-h 
and    also  for  his  two  grand-uncles  Sardarsingh  and  Raghu- 
nathsingh.     There  was  much  delay  in  Mohansingh's  arrival 
as    he    w^as  absent  at   the   time  on  a   shooting  expedition. 
Meanwhile  the  Raja  was  sinking  fast,  so  he   took  the  royal 
pagrl  or  turban  and  placed  it  on  the  head  of  Sardarsino-h 
thus    acknowledging    him    as    his    successor.      Mohansingh 
was  greatly    enraged  at    being  thus  superseded,    and  swore 
that   he    would  yet  regain  his  own — a  threat  which,   as   we 
shall  see,  he  was  able  in  later  years  to  carry  out.  Sardarsingh 
however  ruled  quietly  for  20  years  and,  having  no  son,   was 
succeeded  in   A.D    1732  by  his  brother  Raghunathsingh.  a 
man  already  over   60  and   quite  unable   to  encounter  with  a 
bold  front  the  trials  and  difficulties  which  were  shortly  to 
overtake  his  country. 


^6  lUI.ASl'UK.       HISTORY    AM)    AHCU A:0\ .OC.\ . 

Something    of    llic    condition   of    tlic  country     in    the 
closing   years   of   Rajput    rule    may   be   gathered   from  the 
analogy  of  the  Rajput  kingdoms  described  by  Sir  W.  Sleeman 
in   his   '  Rambles  and   Recollections'  70  years  ago.      The 
intrigues   of  succession,  tlie    rebellions    and    assassinations 
recorded   by  him   in   his   account  of  Orchha  or  Gvvalior    are 
echoed    closely    in    the    traditions    of    Ratanpur.      Sleeman 
tells  for  example  of  the  precarious  positions  of  the  king's  high 
ministers'    in   Orchha      In  Ratanpur  more   than     100    years 
before  he  wrote  the  story  goes  that  Rajsinghdeva,  whose  reign 
lias  just  been  mentioned,  had  no  son,  and  to  divert  the  succes- 
sion   from    his    nearest    heir    he,   on    his    minister's .  advice, 
permitted  his  favourite  Rani  to  be  visited  by  a  Brahman.     A 
son   named  Bishwanath  Singh   was   born,  and  later  grew  up 
and  married  a  daughter  of  the  king  of  Rewah.  But  the  secret 
of  Bishvvsnath's  birth  at  last  leaked  out,  and  in  his   fury  the 
Raja  destroyed  with  cannon    the  entire   quarter  of  Ratanpur 
in  which  his  minister  lived,  involving  the  whole  of  the  latter's 
family   and   adherents,   numbering  some  400  souls,  in  the 
common  ruin.    Bishwanath  committed  suicide.     Again  in  the 
Rajput   kingdoms  of  Mahva  and  Central  India,  we  read  that 
the  local  chiefs  were  '  continually   fighting  against  each  other 
'  or  against  the  peasantry  or  even   against  the  paramount 
'  power  itself,  and  that  paramount  power  or  its  delegates  often 
'  found  that  the  easiest  way  to  crush  one  of  these  refractory 
'  vassals  was  to  put  him  to   "  the  ban  of  the   Empire  "  and 
'  offer  his  lands,   his  castles,  and  his  wealth  to  the  victor. '  ^ 
This  again,  allowing  for  the  predominance  of  aboriginals  and 
the  consequent    weakness    of  the    clan  and   mildness  of  the 
military  spirit,  cannot    be  far  wrong  as  a  description    also  of 
17th  century  Chhattisgarh.     The  scores  of   petty  forts  scat- 
tered   throughout   the  open   country  are  eloquent    testimony 
to  the  incessant   feuds  and  petty  raids    which  formed,  as  the 
central  power  weakened,  the  annual  business  of  each  official 


*  Volume  1,  Chapler  XXI H. 

*  Sleeman,  Volume  I,  page  177. 


HISTORY.  47 

chief  after  the  winter  crops  were  harvested ;  while  of  such 
*  vassals '  put  to  the  '  ban  of  the  Empire  '  examples  are  found 
in  Haihaya  history  in  the  stories  of  Dama  Dhurwa,  a  Gond 
of  Kosgain,  and  of  the  former  Lodhi  rulers  of  Kamthi. 
These  defied  the  kings  of  Ratanpur  and  were  themselves  slain 
and  their  estates  appropriated  by  the  ancestors  of  the  present 
zamlndars  respectively  of  Chhuri  and  Pandaria.  But  while 
the  temper  of  the  kings  of  Ratanpur  was  no  doubt  as 
warlike  as  that  of  their  kinsmen  to  the  north,  the  country 
they  held  did  not  offer  the  same  attractions  to  their  needy 
clansmen.  Even  in  Sleeman's  time  Chhattlsgarh  was  '  a 
fearful  country  though  the  cheapest  and  most  fertile  in  India,' 
and  cannibalism  and  human  sacrifice  were  numbered  among 
the  horrible  practices  attributed  to  its  people.  It  was  pro- 
bably therefore  a  superstitious  aversion  to  wild  forest  country, 
and  the  dread  of  witchcraft  for  which  Chhattlsgarh  was 
always  famous,  which,  as  much  as  anything,  deterred  the 
military  castes  of  Baghelkhand  from  emigrating  in  any  great 
numbers  to  the  more  southern  Kshatriya  kingdom.  Local 
leaders,  Gonds,  Kawars  and  Binjhwars,  held  throughout 
Haihaya  history  an  important  share  of  the  forest  country, 
and  were  even  gradually  admitted  by  their  long  association 
with  a  Rajput  throne  to  a  partial  inclusion  in  the  Kshatriya 
caste.  But  these,  as  a  military  force,  were  of  little  value, 
and,  when  the  day  of  trial  came,  yielded  a  shameful  acquies- 
cence in  a  change  of  masters,  in  spite  of  centuries  of  associa- 
tion with  the  HaihayavansI  throne. 

31.  At  the  close  of  1740,   when  Raghunathsingh    had 
.,.,     „,      ,  been    reigning  for  some    eight    vears 

I  he  Maratha  conquest,  *         ^  ^  jcctib, 

occurred  the  invasion  of  Chhattlsgarh 
by  the  Maratha  General  Bhaskar  Pant.  At  this  time  Raghu- 
nathsingh was  bowed  down  with  a  heavy  sorrow.  He  had 
lost  his  only  son  and  had  ceased  for  nearly  a  year  to  take 
any  interest  in  government.  A  feeble  man  at  best,  but  now 
worn  out  with  years  and  afflicted  in  mind,  he  made  no  effort 
to     defend    his    kingdom,    but    waited    in    the    calmness    of 


48  niLAsrtiR.     history  and  archaeology. 

despair  till    Bhriskar  Pant  had   readied  his  capital.      Even 
then   there   was   no  attempt   at   resistance.     Bhaskar    Pant 
brought  his  guns  to  play  on  the  fort,  and   a   part  of    the 
palace  was  soon  in  ruins.    At  this  juncture  one  of  the  Ranis 
in..unlcd  the   parapet    and   exhibited   a  flag  of  truce.     The 
gates  were  then  opened  and  the  invading  army    entered  and 
took  possession.    In  this  inglorious  manner  ended  the  rule  of 
the  Haihayavansi  dynasty,  which,  without  a  struggle,  yielded 
up    its    heritage.     No  struggle   however  bitter  could    have 
altered  results,  but  history  almost  requires  that  the   last  of  a 
long  line  of   Rajas  should  die  sword  in  hand   defending   his 
country,   and    leave    in    the   memory    of   posterity    a    noble 
example  of  patriotism  and  courage.    If,  at  the  time,  the  whole 
resources  of  Chhattlsgarh  had  been  exercised  by  one  central 
authority,   the   Marathas   might   have   encountered  a   really 
formidable  opposition.     But  as  it  was,  there  was  no  central 
authority  possessing  any  vigour.    The  Haihayas,  as  we  have 
seen,  merely  stood  at  the  head  of  a  number  of  petty  Rajas  and 
official  chiefs,  each  of   whom  was  to  a  large  extent  indepen- 
dent, and  among  whom  the  whole  country   was  divided.     It 
was  an  essentially  weak  system,  adapted  only   to  an   earlier 
stage  of  social  development,  and  must  have  fallen   long  pre- 
viously, had   any   well  organised  foreign  invasion  ever   been 
attempted.    When  the  Marathas  came,  they  marched  through 
the  whole  country  without   any    opposition,   and    demanded 
and   obtained   the  allegiance  of  all   the   surrounding   states. 
Bhaskar  Pant  having  reduced  Ratanpur  left  a  small  garrison 
in  it  and  marched  for  Cuttack.     A  fine  of  a  lakh  of  rupees  is 
mentioned  as  having  been  imposed  on  the  town,  and  all  that 
remained  in  the  treasury  was  appropriated.     But  immediately 
Bhaskar  Pant  had  gone,   Raghunathsingh  ousted  his  repre- 
sentative, a  Gosain,  and  once  more  assumed  the  reins  of 
government.  His  success  was  short-lived.     Previous  mention 
lias  been  made  of    Mohansingh  who  left  Ratanpur  disgusted, 
when   Sardarsingh   succeeded    Rajsinghdeva,  threatening   to 
return  and  assume  the   government.     His   efforts  to  raise  a 


HISTORY.  49 

party  in  his  favour  strong  enough  to  create  a  local  revolution 
proving  fruitless,  he  left  for  Nagpur  and  finally  joined  Raghuji 
I.  He  became  a  favourite  with  this  prince,  was  made  a  Bhonsla, 
and  accompanied  Raghuji  in  his  expedition  against  Bengal. 
In   A.D.    1745,    when    Raghuji    returned    from  Bengal,  he 
heard  of  Raghunathsingh's  reassertion  of  authority.     Cross- 
ing from  Revvah  to  Ratanpur  he  deposed  Raghunathsingh  for 
the  second  time,  and  installed  Mohansingh  as  Raja.     Mohan- 
Bingh  seems    to  have  ruled  in  Chhattisgarh  till    A.D.    i/S^i 
when,  after  the  death  of  Raghuji,   the  latter's  younger  son 
Bimbaji  had  the  Chhattisgarh  country  made  over  to  him.   No 
sooner  did  this    intelligence   reach  Mohansingh  than  he  pre- 
pared to  oppose  Bimbaji's  progress.    He  was  taken  suddenly 
ill,  however,  and  died  at   Raipur,  where  he  had    collected 
a  force,  and  thus  Bimbaji  assumed  the  government    without 
disturbance.     Before   dismissing  the  subject  of  the  Haihaya- 
vansl     dynasty,  it   may   be    noted    that  the   only   surviving 
representative  of  the  family  is  a  quiet  simple-minded  Rajput 
who  lives  in  Bargaon   in  the  Mahasamund  tahsll  of  the  Rai- 
pur District.      He  represents  the  junior  or  Raipur  branch  of 
the  family,  and  holds  five  villages  which  were  given  him  rent- 
free   by   the  Marathas  for  his  maintenance.     In    the  village 
Senduras   (Baloda    Bazar    tahsll)  there  is    a  malguzar    who 
claims  descent   from   the  Ratanpur  family,  but  it   is  believed 
that    this   line  is    extinct,   and    the  claim    of   the    Senduras 
malguzar  is  questionable.    He  enjoys  no    privileges    such  as 
those  of  the  Bargaon   Thakur,    to   whom   presents  are  still 
made  when  he  visits    the  chiefs  who  were  once  subordinate 
to  bis  ancient  house. 

32.   Bimbaji  Bhonsla  ruled  at  Ratanpur  from  A.D.  1758 
till  his    death  in   A.D    1787.      Though 

Bimbaji  Bhonsla. 

generally  regarded  as  subordinate  to  the 
head  of  the  family  at  Nagpur,  he  was  virtually  independent. 
Alluding  to  the  relations  existing  between  the  Bhonsla  bro- 
thers Sir  R.  Jenkins  states  that  the  eldest  as  Raja,  or  sove- 
reign, had  a  right   to  the  allegiance  of  the  otliers,  and  to 

H 


50  miAsniK.     imstokv  and  arch^:ology. 

(crtaiii    military  services  on  account  of  their  fiefs  or   appan- 
ages     But  the  Knticr  managed   their  country  and  maintained 
ihcir  separate  courts,  households,  ministers  and  armies,  sub- 
ject   to  no    interference   whatever   on    the  part  of  the  Kaja. 
This  then  was  the  position  of  liimbaji.     He  stepped  into  the 
place  of  the  old  Rajas  of  ChhattTsgarh,  maintained  a  regular 
court  at  Katanpur,  and  surrounded  himself  with  a  consider- 
able Maiaiha  following,  by  whose  assistance  he  maintained 
his  authority.     In  the  earlier  years  of  his  reign  he  was  very 
oppressive,  but  as  time  passed  on,  he  more  and  more  identi- 
lied  himself  with   his  people,   and  has   left  a  memory  fairly 
popular  and  respected.     He  was  succeeded  (A.D.  1788)   by 
Vyankoji,  a  younger  brother  of  Raja  Raghuji  II  of  Nagpur. 
Vyankoji,  though  he  paid  two  or  three  flying  visits  to  Chhat- 
tisgarh,  and  passed  through  it  in  181 1  to   Benares  where  he 
died,  never  took  an  active  part  in  the  government  of  the  pro- 
vince being  too  much   concerned   with  the   more  important 
politics  of  Nagpur.     A  Subah  was  posted  to    Ratanpur  on 
his  behalf.  Anandi  Bai,  one  of  the  widows  of  Bimbaji,  forcibly 
opposed  the  Subah  ordered  by  Vyankoji  to  assume  the  govern- 
ment  after    the  death    of   Bimbaji.      But  a  compromise  was 
soon  cflccted.     It    was  decided   that  the   government  should 
be  carried  on  in  tlienameof  Vyankoji,  who  should  be  repre- 
sented by  a  Subah  on  the   spot,  but  that  Anandi  Bai  should 
be  consulted  in  the  details  of  the  government.     As  a  matter 
of  fact    her  authority  seems  to  have  been  very  limited,  and 
practically  from  1787  to  1818    A.D.  when  Appa   Sahib  was 
deposed,    ana    the    administration    of   the    Nagpur    country 
during  the  minority  of  the    last  Raghuji  was  assumed  by  the 
British  Government,  the  Clihattlsgarh  province  was  ruled  by 
a  succession   of  Suhahs  who  exercised  in   all   departments  a 
very  extensive  autliority. 


HISTORY.  5* 

33.  A  list  of  the  Ratanpur  Subahs   who  immediately 

preceded  the  arrival  of  the  first  British 
Subah  government.        Superintendent  is  given  in  the    margin. 

1.  Vi'hai  Dinkar.  They  were  subject  to  very  little,  if  any, 

2.  Katu  Fant. 

3.  Keshava  Pant.  control,    and   as    long    as    they    were 

4.  Bhika  Bhau.  111  ^      1  l. 

5.  Sakiiaram  Bapu.        Supported   by    the    central     power    at 

6.  Yadava  Rao  Divva-     ^agpur,   the   majority    of   them    were 

very  unscrupulous  as  to  the  means 
used  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth.  They  were  almost  driven  to 
this  course  by  the  knowledge  that  their  authority  would 
certainly  be  short-lived,  and  that  they  would  be  superseded 
before  long  by  some  new  favourite.  The  tradition  still  survives 
of  this  early  Subah  government,  as  a  period  when  a  system 
of  universal  Moot'  was  a  recognised  State  policy.  One 
of  the  last  of  the  Subahs,  Sakharam  Bapu,  was  shot  by 
a  resident  of  Ratanpur.  He  had  under  false  pretences 
promised  to  raise  the  man  to  a  position  of  independence  and 
dignity  as  a  large  landed  proprietor  and  thus  deliberately 
robbed  him  of  a  considerable  fortune. 

34.  The    Maratha   administration  proper  thus  lasted  for 

barely  60  years  (1758  to  1818;  and  the 
_  The  Maratha   admin-     following  account  may  be  given  of   its 

istration.  °  jo 

methods.  Sir  R.  Jenkins  tells  us 
that  '  the  changes  effected  by  the  Marathas  did  not  extend 
'further  than  establishing  a  more  regular  mode  of  keeping 
'  the  accounts,  no  alteration  having  taken  place  in  the 
'manner  of  assessing  the  lands,  nor  any  measures  being 
'  devised  to  regulate  and  record  the  agreements  made  between 
'  the  patels  and  cultivators.'  It  is  evident  from  this  that 
the  Maratha  simply  adopted  the  old  Haihaya  system  to 
his  new  requirements  — making  the  least  change  possible 
in  existing  methods.  But  the  spirit  of  the  new  rule  was 
wholly  different.  There  was  no  more  the  old  respect  for 
customary  rights,  and  none  of  the  easy  going  delegation  of 
authority   so    natural    to  rulers    whose    position  was  based 

^   Report   of  1JJ27,  page  92,  of  1901    issue. 


52 


mi.Asri'H.     msTOKY  and  arch.kology. 


on  the  tacit  approval  of  tlie  people.  The  M;iratlia  had 
no  love  for  the  old  official  hierarchy,  for  they  and  their 
inclhods  were  a  serious  hindrance  to  his  one  object  in  coming 
to  the  country,  viz.,  the  collection  of  as  large  a  revenue  as 
possible.  Hence  in  all  but  the  forest  country,  where  it  was 
thought  best  to  leave  matters  as  they  stood — control  being 
difficult  and  revenue  small — the  old  Diwans.and  with  them  the 
great  majority  of  the  Daos  a\so,  were  roughly  set  aside.  ^  The 
garhs  were  called  parganas  and  were  entrusted  to  Kamaish- 
dars.  The  barhoiis  were  designated  taluks  and  were  given  to 
patels.  '\\\cgaontia<i,  who  could  not  be  replaced,  were  left  as 
they  were  but  suffered  as  much  as  any  from  the  change  of 
masters.  A  list  of  the  parganas  of  the  open  country  as 
maintained  by  the  Marathas  north  of  (heSeonath  is  preserved 
in  an  old  letter  of  1855,  and  may  be  quoted  here  : — 


Name  of  pargana. 

1.  Ratanpur 

2.  Maloda 

3.  Takliatpur 

4.  Bijaipur 

5.  Lormi 

6.  Kharaud 

7.  A  k  altar  a 

8.  Kokra 

9.  Nawagarh 

10.  J.nijgir 

11.  Kekirda 

12.  Nawagarh 

13.  Mungeli 
14    Madnnpur 
15-   Hadnera 
16.   Palharia 
I/--  Rakah 
18.    Maro 


No.      of 
villages. 

.,  485^ 
..       67 

•■  '73 
..       91 

..  109 

..  158^ 

••       93 

10 

•'  53 
..  31 
..     io4 

0/ 
...  159 
,..  23 

I  I 
...  36 

...        119 

•••        153 


Later  formed  the 
Ratanpur  par- 
gana of  925  vil- 
lages. 

Later  formed  the 
Kharaud  par- 
gana of  449  vil- 
lases. 


Later  formed  the 
Nawagarh  par- 
gana of  872  vil- 
laL'es. 


HISTORY.  5  3 

Ten  of  these  parganas,  it  will  be  noticed,  bear  the  names  of 
Haihaya  chaiirdsis,  (see  para.  28  above) — and  it  seems  highly 
probable,  seeing  what  few  changes  the  Marathas  introduced, 
that  with  slight  alterations  these  accurately  represent  the 
gai'hs  as  they  existed  in  the  open  country  in  the  last  days  of 
Rajput  rule.  They  continued  apparently  unaltered  until  1818 
when,  as  noted  in  the  list,  they  were  compressed  into  the  three 
parganas  of  Ratanpur,  Kharaud  and  Navvagai"h  under  the 
orders  of  the  first  British  Superintendent  of  Chhattisgarh. 
From  these  three  parganas  the  present  tahsils  of  Bilaspur, 
Janjgir  (formerly  Seorlnarayan)  and  Mungell  are  lineally 
descended. 

This  period  (1758  to  18 18)  is  usually  regarded  as  the 
'dark  age'  of  Chhattisgarh  history.  The  old  Hindu  system 
had  been  swept  away  and  an  alien  government  had  taken  its 
place.  In  tlie  time  of  its  ancient  Rajas  who  were  bound  to  the 
people  by  ties  of  tradition  and  sympathy,  there  was,  it  has 
been  said,  '  an  extent  of  peace,  comfort,  and  happiness  sadly  in 

*  contrast  with  the  evil  days  which  followed  the  wave  of 
'  Maratha  conquest.  Here  was  an  irruption  of  soldiers  flushed 
'  with  victory  among  a  people,  whose  past  history    had    been 

*  singularly  free  "from  war  and  rumours  of  wars''  thus  creating 
'  a  community  markedly  timid  and  unwarlike.  As  a  natural 
'  result  they  were  trodden  down  unmercifully  and  their  country 

*  robbed  and  desolated.  To  realise  what  the  country  must 
'have  suffered   between  A.D.   1740   and    1818,    we  have  to 

*  remember  that  not  only  was  a  considerable  Maratha  force 
'  permanently  maintained  in  Chhattisgarh,  but  that  large 
'  armies  were  often  traversing  tiie  country,  not  only  living  on 
'  the  people,  but  freely  robbing  them.  Then  there  were  the 
'  raids    of  the  Pindaris,  whose  depredations  were  connived  at 

*  by  the  Bhonsla  Government  and  from  whom  a  regular  black- 
'  mail  was  accepted  by  the  Raja  or  his  officials  out  of  the 
'  booty  acquired  in  pillaging  the  people.  Add  to  all  this  tlie 
'  exactions  and  oppressions  of  the  Maratha  Subahs  already 
'referred  to,  who  exercised  the  chief  civil  authority   and   we 


54  lUI.ASPtlU.       HISTORY    AND    ARCUAIOLOGY. 

'  need  net  l.c  surprised  lliat  during  the  half  century  which 
'  iinmedialcly    preceded    the    Brilisli    Regency    the    country 

•  materially  retrograded,  and  tracts  relapsed  into  waste  which 

•  had  formerly  been  reclaimed  and  cultivated.'^  At  the  same 
time  that  a  certain  measure  of  rude  plenty  was  still  main- 
tained under  Maratha  rule  may  safely  be  inferred  from  the 
following  description  of  Chhatiisgarh  written  by  an  eye- 
witness—one of  the  first  Europeans  perhaps  who  ever  visited 
the  country.  It  is  an  extract  from  the  diary  of  Captain  Blunt 
written  in  1795  A.D.  descriptive  of  his  journey  through 
Chhattisgarh  to  Kfijahmundry  and  is  of  sufficient  interest  to 
be  given  here  7r;  balim.  Having  crossed  from  Rewah  through 
Kauria  and  Matin  to  Ratanpur  he  writes  as  follows  :— 

'  March  18th.  Having  now  rested  five  days  at  Rutttin- 
'  pour,  our  journey  was  renewed,  with  fresh  spiri's,  through 
'  a  champaign  country,  abundantly  watered  with  little  rivers, 
'  full  of  villages,  and  beautifully  ornamented  with  groves  and 
'  tanks.  After  the  difficulties  we  had  encountered,  the 
'change  of  scene  was  truly  gratifying,  and  the  Mahratta 
'  government  being  well  established,  and  the  country  highly 
'  cultivated,  we  met  with  civil  treatment,  and  abundance  of 
'  every  species  of  grain.     These  were   comforts  to  which  we 

*  had  been  so  long  unaccustomed,  that  the  hardships  we  had 
'  suffered  in  traversing  the  mountains  and  wilds  of  Corair, 
'  Kurgnmmah,  and  Ma/iti'n  were   soon  forgot.      But  as   an 

*  account  of  each  day's  journey,   through  this  fertile  country 

'  would  be  tedious  and  uninteresting  in  the  detail,  I  need 
'  only  mention  that  we  travelled  lOO  miles  through  it  in  little 

♦  more  than  thirteen  days,  which  brought  us  on  the  31st  of 
•March  to  Ryr pour,  the  next  principal  town  in  C/iokcsgur  ] 
'  but  which,  from  its  population,  and  commerce,  might  justly 
'  be  ranked  the  first.     I  computed  about  3000  huts  in  it  :  there 

♦  is  also  a  large  stone  fort  on  the  north-east  side  of  the 
'  town,  the  walls  of  which  are  decayed,  but  the  ditch  is  deep 
« and  wide 


^  Chisliolin's  bettlemeiu  Keport,  i66S. 


HISTORY.  5  5 

*  The  soil  in  this    country    is    a   rich    blaclc   mould,   but 

*  no-vvhere  more  than  three  feet  in  depth.  Under  this  the 
'  solid  rock  appears,  as  was  perceptible  in  all  the  beds  of  the 

*  rivers,  and  in  the  sides  of  tanks  and  wells.     It  produces  large 

*  quantities  of  wheat,  and   vegetable  oil,    such  as  the  linseed 

*  and  Palmachristi,  and  various  kinds  of  pulse.      Rice  is  not 

*  abundant,  it  being  only  cultivated  behind  large  reservoirs 
'  of  water,  collected  in  the  rainy  season,  in  situations  where 
'the  declivity  of  the  surface  is  suitable;  and  through  the 
'  dykes,  or  embankments  of  which,  the  water  is  occasionally 
'  let  out  to  supply  the  vegetation,  when  the  fall  of  rain  from 

*  the  atmosphere  no  longer  favours  it.  Large  quantities  of 
'grain  are  exported  from  Chotersgitr  all  over  the  Nizam's 
'  dominions,  and  even   to  the   Circars,   when   the   scarcity   in 

*  those  provinces  requires  it.  From  llie  latter  they  import 
'  salt,  which  is  retailed  at  such  an  extravagant  price,  that  it 
'  is  sometimes  sold  for  its  weight  in  silver.  I'he  villages 
'  are  very  numerous,   but  poor ;  and  the  country   abounds  in 

*  cattle,  and  brood  mares  of  the  taloo  species.  The  popula- 
'  tion  of  Clwteesgitr  is  not  great,  nor  does  the  system  of 
'  government  to  which  it  is  subject  at  all  tend  to  increase  it. 
'The  Subah  of  Clioteesgur,  with  its  dependencies,  was  at  this 

*  time  rented  by  the  Berar  government,  to   Ittul  Pundit,  for 

*  a  specific  sum,  which  was  payable  annually  in  Nagpour ; 
'  and  who,  in  consideration  of  the  rank  of  Snbadar,  and  his 
'  appointment,  had   likewise  paid  a   considerable  sum.      Upon 

*  further  inquiry  as  to  the  means  by  which  the  Siibadar 
'  managed  ti>e  country,  I  was  informed,  that  he  farmed 
'different  portions  of  it  to  his  tenants,^  for  a  certain  period 
'  and  for  specific  sums  ;  nearly  upon  the  same  terms  as  the 
'  whole  was  rented  to  him.  The  revenue  is  collected  by  his 
'  tenantry,   which,  in   those  parts    of  the   country   where  the 

*  government  is  well  established,  gives  them  little  trouble. 
'  I'he  attention  of  the  Subadar  is  chiefly   directed  to  levying 

*  tributes  from  the  Zameendars  in  the   mountainous  parts  of 

^ ».«.,  the  I'atels. 


56  BILASPfTR.       HISTORY    AND    ARCH^.OLOGY. 

•  the  coiiiili  V  ;  who  hcing  always  refractory  and  never  paying 
'  an)  thing  until  iiiiich   lime  has   been   spent   in    warfare,  the 

♦  result  is  often  precarious,  and  the  tribute  consequently 
'  iiivial.  I  was  next  led  to  iiif|uire  what  method  was  adopted 
'  by  the  tenantry  in  collecting  the  revenue  from  the 
'peasants.  Tiicy  informed  me  that  it  invariably  consisted 
'  in    taxing   the   ploughs,  and   was  always  delivered   in   the 

*  produce  of  the  lands  ;  as  grain,  oil,  or  cotton,   according  to 

♦  the  species  of  cultivation  for  which  the  implements  had 
'  been  used.  This  consequently  occasions  a  vast  accumula- 
'  tion  of  the  produce  of  tlie  country  to  the  tenant;  and  some 
'expedient  becomes  immediately  necessary  to  convert  it  into 
'  specie  to  enable  him  to  pay  his  rent. 

'  The  Mnhraltas  keep  their  peasantry  in  the  most  abject 
'  state    of   dependance,    by    which    means    they    allege,    the 

•  Ryats  are  less  liable  to  be  turbulent,  or  offensive  to  the 
'government  Coin  is  but  sparingly  circulated  among  them, 
'  and   they  derive   their  habitations,   and    subsistence,    from 

*  the  labour  of  their  own  hands.  Their  troops,  who  are 
'  chietly  composed  of  emigrants,  from  the  northern  and 
'  western  parts  of  Hindoostan,  are  quartered  upon  the  ten- 
'  antiy,  who,  in  return  for  the  accommodation  and  subsistence 

•  they  atiord  them,   require  their  assistance,   whenever  it  may 

•  be  necessary,  for  collecting  the  revenues.  Such  was  the 
« stale  of  the  country  and  government  of  Chotecsgiir ;  the 
I  exports  of  which,  in  seasons  of  plenty,  are  said  to  employ 
«  100,000  bullocks  ;  and  it  is  accordingly  one  of  the  most 
'  productive   provinces  under  the  BcraJi  Rajah.'' 

35.  It  was  in  supersession  of  a  government  such  as  that 
described    that  in    A.D.    iSiS,  after    a 

British  I'rolcctorate. 

short  period  of  disturbance  consequent 
upon  Appa  Sahib's  escape  and  flight,  the  country  came  for 
he  first  time  under  the  superintendence  of  British  Officers. 
The  change  would  in  any  case  have  been  for  the  better  but, 
as  it  happened,  the  chief  authority  in  Chhattlsgarh  was 
entrusted  to  Colonel  Agnew,  an  officer  whose  special   qualifi- 


HISTORY.  57 

cations  were  such  as  to  win  tlie  respect  and  esteem  of  the 
whole  community.  It  was  he  (after  the  death  of  Mr. 
Edmonds,  who  had  first  taken  charge  of  the  District),  who 
removed  the  headquarters  of  Chliattisgarh  from  Ratanpur  to 
Raipur,  as  being  a  more  important  and  central  position,  and 
from  that  time  Ratanpur  has  ceased  to  be  of  any  administra- 
tive importance.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  in  detail  into  the 
measures  taken  by  Colonel  Agnevv  to  improve  the  condition 
of  Clihattisgarh.  Sir  R.  Jenkins'  Report  gives  us  full  infor- 
mation on  this  subject  and  the  following  quotations  from  it 
will  suffice : — '  The  Khalsa  lands'  which  were  distributed 
'  formerly  into  27  divisions  were  formed  into  9  Parganahs 
'  by  Colonel  Agnew.  The  revenue  of  the  province  seems 
'  to  have  been  on  the  increase  from  the  time  it  first  came 
'  into  the  hands  of  the  Maharathas,  but  during  the  later 
'  years  of  the  life  of  Venkoji  Bhonsla,  and  the  time  of  Appa 
'  Sahib,  who  succeeded  to  the  appanage  on  the  death  of 
'  his  father  in  1222  Fasli.  exaction  was  carried  to  a  most 
'  unprincipled  and  ruinous  extent.  In  the  course  of  18 
'years,    from    1209   to    1227     Fasli,   the     assessment     was 

*  raised  from  one  lakh  and  twenty-six  thousand  to  three 
'  lakhs   and     eighty-three   thousand    rupees.       The     system 

*  of  imposing  paltis  (extra  percentage  enhancements;  was 
'  carried  to  the  utmost  limit,  and  Colonel  Agnew  describes 
'  the   subah,  in  18 19,  as  presenting   •'  one  uniform    scene  of 

*  plunder  and  oppression,  uninfluenced  by  any  consideration 
'  but    that  of  collecting,    by    whatever    means,    the   largest 

*  amount   possible.  " 

'  On  assuming  charge    Colonel   Agnew's    attention  was 

*  easily  directed  to  introducing  order  and  regularity  into  the 
'  system  we  found  established,  or  rather  to  reorganizing  it. 
'  With  this  view,  the  following  general  measures  were 
'  adopted  by   him. 


^   For  Colonel    Agnew's  treatment  of  the    zamiadars    see  the    separate 
notice  oil  these  estates  in  the  Appendix. 


cS  IiII.ASrilK.       HISTORY    AND    ARCHAEOLOGY. 

'  'riic/)<?///.s  of  latest  inlioduction,  which  could  be  consU 

•  dcrcd  as  forming  no  part  of  the  regular  assessment,  were 
'  abolished.  Tiie  payments  of  the  ki'sls  (instalments)  were  fixed 
»  at  periods  favourable  to  the  interests  of  the  ryots  and  receipts 
'  were  directed  to  be  given  to  the  gaontias  on  each  payment. 

'  Colonel  Agncw  experienced  great  difficulty  in  settling 
'  ihc  balance  due  on  our  taking  charge,  and  fixing  the  assess- 
'  mcnt  of  the  year  1228   Fasli. 

'  The  total  amount  of  the  arrears  of  the  Khalsa  lands 
'  borne  on  the  accounts  was  one  lakh  seventy-seven  thousand 
'six  hundred  and  eight  rupees;  but  on  investigation  it  was 
'  found  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  sum  was  the  accumu- 
'  lalion  in  tlie  Mahratta  accounts  of  bad  debts  and  unrealized 

•  revenue,  to  enforce  the  payment  of  which  would  have  been 
'  impracticable  and  to  attempt  it  unjust ;  accordingly  one  lakh 

•  thirty-four  thousand  five  hundred  and  ninety-nine  rupees 
'  was  at  once  remitted ;  thirty-six  thousand  five  hundred 
'  rupees  ordered  to  be  collected,  and  the  remainder  retained 
'  as  a  doubtful  balance 

'  The  migrating  habits  of  the  people  and  the  general 
'  poverty  of  the  gaontias  has  hitherto  prevented  the  settlements 
'  in  this  district  from  being  concluded  for  more  than  one  year. 

'  No  very   satisfactory  account   of  the   land  revenue  of 

•  former  years  can  be  given ;  but  from   the  best  sources,  the 

•  average  collections  for  the  ten  years  previous  to  1228  may 
'  be  stated  at   three  lakhs  sixty  thousand   five  hundred  and 

•  ninety-eight  rupees. 

'  Our  collections  have  been — 

Rs. 
J"    '22S  ...  ...     3,31,470 

1229 
1230 

1232 

1^33 
1234 


3>47,590 
3,80,826 
4,04,797 
4,18,007 
4,03,424 
3,85,840' 


HISTORY.  59 

36.  The  British  protectorate  continued  from  A. D.  18 18 

till  1830,  and  during  the  greater  portion 

Restoration  of  Native     ^f  ^^jg      j-j^^j  Colonel  Agnew  continued 

Rule.  '^  ° 

as  Superintendent.  From  A.D.  1830 
till  1854  the  country  remained  under  native  administration. 
The  revenue  system  seems  to  have  been  much  the  same  as 
during  the  British  protectorate,  the  post  of  Superintendent 
being  occupied  by  Maratha  Subahs.  These  resided  at  Raipur, 
and  subordinate  to  them  were  the  Kamaishdars  or  sub-collec- 
tors in  each  pargana  or  cluster  of  taluks.  The  time  had 
passed  when  violence  and  oppression  could  be  freely  resorted 
to  by  those  in  power,  for  protests  against  the  action  of  the  local 
Subahdars,  if  thrown  out  by  the  Raja  himself,  were  almost 
invariabl}'  carried  to  the  British  Resident  at  Nagpur,  whose 
simple  edict  was  usually  sufficient  to  redress  any  glaring 
wrongs.  Judging  by  the  tone  of  the  people  in  speaking  of 
these  days  they  seem  to  have  been  fairly  contented  and 
prosperous  ;  and  although  there  were  doubtless  many  indivi- 
dual sufferers  from  occasional  acts  of  injustice  on  the  part  of 
native  officials,  yet  such  cases  are  not  entirely  unknown  even 
under  more  civilised  systems.  In  this  District  the  people 
were  very  remote  from  the  central  authority,  they  were  not 
inundated  by  a  swarm  of  unprincipled  subordinates,  and  so 
little  was  really  known  of  them  and  their  country  that  in 
practice  the  masses  were  hardly  interfered  with  at  all.  On 
the  whole  the  interval  of  native  government,  as  controlled 
by  the  British  Resident,  seems  to  have  been  a  period  of  slow 
but  steady  progress. 

37.  On  the  lapse  of  the  Nagpur  Province  to  the  British 
Government  in  1854,  Chhattlsgarh  was 
tish°Ku?e.°'^^"^°'^  °  "'  formed  into  a  separate  Deputy  Commis- 
sionership  with  its  headquarters  at 
Raipur.  But  after  some  years'  experience  the  charge  was 
found  too  heavy  for  one  officer,  and  in  1861  Bilaspur  was 
constituted  a  distinct  District,  thus  coming  under  the  routine 
of  British  administration  of  which  a  separate  account  is  given 


60  DILASPIJR.       lIISrOKY    AND    ARCH/r.OLOGY. 

in 'Chapter  IX.     The  country  remained    wholly    undisturbed 
throiiKhoul  the  Mutiny  of  1857-58.     From  that  time  onwards 
the  history    of  the    District  is    mainly  the  story  of   its    social 
development.     Undisturbed    by  political    unrest,  the    people 
have  devoted  themselves  to  their  material  advancement.  They 
are  still  somewhat   backward  and   unintelligent  in    so  far   as 
the  purer  Hindu   element  is  outnumbered   by    the    aboriginal 
and  low-caste  population.     But  it  has   been   an  era   of  rapid 
improvement.     The  gift    of  proprietary    rights    at    the    first 
settlement  of  1868  created  throughout  the  District  a  new  social 
centre  of  gravity.     In  old  days  the  head  of  the  villrge  was 
the  mouthpiece  of  the  tenantry  and  practically  one  of  them — 
their  natural  defender  against  exactions  on  the  part  of  govern- 
ment.    Under  our  rule  the  headman  and  tenants  have  indepen- 
dent legal   rights  while   the  government  stands  by  to  control 
the  relations    between  them.     The   easy   going   headmen  of 
earlier  days  related   by    blood,  by    marriage   or  by   caste   to 
every  tenant  holding  from  him  ;  the  village  itself  a  miniature 
republic,   internally  discordant  perhaps  but  always  united  in 
opposition  to  outside  control ;  and  a  village  community   self- 
contained  not    only  in  the    matter  of  its  own    support  but  in 
the  power   to  settle  disputes  among  its  members  ;   these  are 
features  which  grow  less  familiar  every  year.     In  their  place 
we  Hnd  a  more  and  more   business-like  control  by  tlie  land- 
lord ;  a    growing    spirit   of    independence  among    the    tenant 
class ;  and  in  consequence  a  reference  of  every  matter  in  dis- 
pute to  the  tahsil  or  District  headquarters.     The  new  picture 
is  in  some  respects  perhaps   not  so  pleasing  as  the  old,  but  it 
is   at  any   rate   more  stimulating   and  fraught   with   greater 
possibilities  for  the  future.     Add   to  this   the  development  in 
wealth,  the  improvement    in  dress,  and  the    increasing   com- 
forts of  daily  life,  and  we   have  ample   evidence  that   internal 
peace  and  material  prosperity  have  already  inspired  even  this 
backward  country  with  the  new  spirit  of  progress.     The  half 
centenary  of   Crown  rule    which    we  only    commemorated  a 
year  ago  can  always  claim  to  have  been   a  period  of    honest 


ARCHEOLOGY.  6 1 

and  sustained  effort  on  .behalf  of  the  people  which,  even  if  it 
cease  to-morrow,  will  have  had  a  permanent  influence  upon 
their  character  and  their  ideals. 

ARCH/EOl.OGY. 

38.  Bilaspur  is  an  important  District  from  an  archaeolo- 
gical point  of  view.  It  possesses  many 
Architectural  remains,  beautiful  specimens  of  mediaeval  archi- 
tecture in  the  temples  of  Pali,  Janjgir, 
and  Tuman  and  in  those  of  Kharod,  Dhanpur  and  Mallar, 
Temples  of  similar  type  but  not  so  richly  ornate  as  these 
may  be  seen  in  Seorinarayan  and  Adbhar,  while  ruins  at 
Gatora,  Kotgarh,  Kosgain,  Manipur,  Mahamadpur,  Bisesra 
and  Kothari  show  that  many  other  structures  of  the  kind 
have  fallen  into  decay.  Ratanpur  also  possesses  some 
decorated  temples,  but  the  bulk  of  them  belong  to  a  late  period 
distinctly  influenced  by  the  Muhammadan  style.  Most  of 
the  buildings  here  mentioned  were  built  by  the  Haihaya 
kings  who  first  settled  at  Tuman  and  afterwards  moved  down 
to  Ratanpur.  Hence  a  large  number  are  Sivite  shrines,  for 
the  Haihayas  were  Siva  worshippers  as  their  inscriptions  show. 
Among  Vishnuite  temples  the  best  known  are  the  beautiful 
unfinished  temple  of  Janjgir  and  the  principal  temple  of 
Seorinarayan.  At  Mallar,  Dhanpur,  Ratanpur  and  else- 
where there  are  many  Jain  remains,  the  statues  at  Mallar 
being  colossal. 

There  are  two  masonry  hill  forts,  one  at  Laphagarh, 
the  other  at  Kosgain  to  which  access  is  very  difficult. 
Large  earth  fortifications  are  found  in  the  plain  country  at 
Ramgarh,  Kotmi,  Kotgarh,  Mallar,  Sarhar,  Kashigarh  and 
Konargarh.  Ratanpur  and  Bilaspur  contain  forts  made  with 
stone  and  lime.  The  Ratanpur  fort  is  built  so  as  rou<j-hly 
to  resemble  a  seated  elephant.  At  Korba  there  are  t<vo  small 
caves  cut  out  of  rock. 

39.  A  number  of  inscriptions  have  been   found  in  this 
.    .  District  almost  all  of  which  refer  to  the 

Inscriptions. 

Haihaya    kings  of    Ratanpur.    Among 


62  niLASPUR.       HISTORY    AND    ARCIiyiCOLOGY. 

these  still  remaining  ///  silit  arc  two  inscriptions  in  the  Kharod 
temple,'  two  in  the  Seorlnarayan''  temple,  some  small  inscrip- 
tions on  the  walls  of  the  Pali  temple  and  in  the  Kosgain  fort^, 
and  one  in  Kotgarh  which  has  not  been  deciphered.  A 
second  Kotgarh  inscription  has  been  removed  to  Akaltara.* 
There  are  two  small  inscriptions  in  the  Mahamaya  temple  of 
Ratanpur,  one  praising  the  ruling  king  and  the  other  the 
sculptor.  Several  important  records  have  been  removed  to 
the  Raipur  and  Nagpur  Museums.  The  former  contains  an 
inscription  brought  from  Kotgarh^  and  the  latter  four  from 
Ratanpur/  one  from  Mallar,'  and  one  from  Kosgain  A 
second  inscription  from  Mallar  is  kept  in  the  Bilaspur  Town 
Hall*;  another  from  Mahamadpur^  still  lies  in  a  bungalow  in 
the  civil  station. 

1   Indian    Antiquary    XXII,    page  82,  and  Cousen.V    Report   for    1934, 
page  53» 

a  Couseus'  Report  for  1904,  page  53. 

3  Cunningham's  Archaeological   Report,  Vol.  XIII,  page  153,  et  bcq, 

•  Cousens'  Report  for  1924,  page  51. 

s   Indinn  Antiquary,  Vol.  XX,  page  84. 

"  Epigraphia    Indica,    Vol.  I,   pages    34  and   45,    and   Cunningham's 
Archseolo-^ical  Survey  of  India,  Vo",  XVII,  plate  XX. 

^  Epigraphia  Indica,  Vol.  I,  page  3^. 

•  Cousens'  Report,  1904,  page  50. 

•  Indian  Antiquary,  Vol.  XX,  page  84. 


5,    ir^ft^t   ^  J 


RUINED    TEMPLE,    KHAROD. 


CHAPTER  III. 
POPULATION. 

STATISTICS  OF  POPULATION. 

40.  The  area  and  population  of  the  District  in  igoi  were 

8341  square  miles   and  1,012,972  per- 

Recent    changes    in      g^^^g    respectively.     Both    the    Raipur 

the   constitution   of    the  '^  -' 

District.  and  Bilaspur   Districts,  which  at    that 

time  together  covered  an  area  of  20,000 
square  miles  and  contained  a  population  of  2^  million  persons, 
were  considered  to  be  too  large  for  efficient  management, 
and  in  1902  proposals  were  drawn  up  by  Mr.  L.  S.  Carey, 
the  Commissioner,  for  the  constitution  of  a  third  District, 
comprising  the  western  portions  of  Raipur  and  Bilaspur.  The 
Drug  District  was  formed  in  January  1906  and  an  extensive 
redistribution  of  territory  took  place.  The  western  part  of 
the  MungelT  tahsll,  comprised  in  the  Nawagarh  and  Maro 
Revenue  Inspectors'  circles,  was  transferred  to  the  Drug 
District,  this  tract  having  an  area  of  363  square  miles  with 
a  population  of  83,650  persons.  At  the  same  time  the  Tar- 
enga  estate  lying  west  of  the  Seonath  and  the  tracts  south 
of  the  Mahanadi  comprising  the  Sonakhan  and  Sarsiwa 
tracts,  and  the  Bhatgaon  and  Bilaigarh-Katgi  zamlndaris 
were  transferred  from  Bilaspur  to  Raipur.  This  area 
amounted  to  706  square  miles  and  contained  99,402  persons. 
The  line  of  the  Seonath  and  Mahanadi  rivers  thus  became 
the  boundary  between  Raipur  and  Bilaspur.  In  1905,  how- 
ever, on  the  cession  of  Sambalpur  to  Bengal,  the  Chandarpur- 
Padampur  and  Malkharoda  estates  from  that  District  were 
made  over  to  Bilaspur  and  attached,  to  the  Janjgir  tahsll. 
The  revised  area  of  the  District  is  thus  7602  square  miles* 
and  its  population  917,240  persons. 

'    A  disciepancy    of    three  square    miles    is   due  to  the    correction    of 
forest  area  in    1902. 


64 


ISILASI'UK.        IMjl'l'LATION. 


Hiliispur  ii'jw  ranks  tliiid  in  area  and  second  in  popula- 
tion among  the  Districts  of"  tlic  Central  Provinces  and  Berar. 
41.  The  District  is  divided  into   tliree  tahsils,    Mungell 
lying  to  liic  west,  Bilaspur  in  tlie  centre, 

Chai.Kcs     in      talisii      and  lanisfir  to  the  east.     Tlie  area  and 
areas.  "^      • 

population    of    the    tahsils  in    1901  is 

shown  below  : — 


Area  in 
square  miles. 

Population. 

Bilaspur     ... 

Mungeli 

Janjgir 

5080 
1794 
1467 

472,682 

255,055 
285,236 

In  1905  the  Chandarpur-Padampur  and  Malkharoda 
estates  were  attached  to  the  Jangir  tahsll,  which  was  after- 
wards relieved  of  the  strip  south  of  the  Mahanadi.  At  the 
same  time  the  Korba,  Chhurl  and  Uprora  zamindaris  having 
an  area  of  1643  square  miles  with  a  population  of  86,917 
persons  were  transferred  from  the  Bilaspur  tahsll  to  Janjgir, 
The  Baloda-Pantora  tract  to  the  east  of  the  Lilagar  river 
containing  48  villages  with  an  area  of  79  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  18,065  persons  was  transferred  from  Bilaspur 
to  Janjgir  tahsil.  The  line  of  the  Lilagar  river  thus  became 
the  boundary  between  the  tahsils.  A  small  area  of  23  villages 
of  the  Bilaspur  tahsll  to  the  west  of  the  Maniari,  having  an 
area  of  20  square  miles  with  a  population  of  5712  persons, 
was  also  transferred  to  the  Mungeli  tahsll  so  as  to  make 
the  Maniari  river  the  boundary  of  the  two  tahsils.  These 
changes  took  place  on  ist  January  1906. 

The  area  and  population  of  the  reconstituted  tahsils  is 
shown  on  the  ne.xt  page. 


STATISTICS    OF    POPULATION. 


65 


Bilaspur 
Mungell 
Janjgir 


Area  in 
square  miles. 


Population. 


32'.9i5 
177,116 

418,209 


42.  Bilaspur  is    thus  the  largest  tahsil    in  point  of  area 

and  Janjgir  in  population,  while    Mungeli 
Density.  ,  ,,  .        ,      1  .  -r-i 

IS  the  smallest  in  both  respects.  1  he 
total  density  of  population  is  121  persons  per  square  mile 
as  against  120  for  British  Districts  of  the  Central  Provinces 
and  Berar.  The  figures  of  density  for  the  tahsils  are  Janj- 
gir 138;  Mungell  122;  Bilaspur  103.  But  if  the  zamlndaris 
be  excluded  the  malguzari  area  of  Bilaspur  contains  202 
persons  to  the  square  mile  and  Janjgir  228  persons;  while 
the  seven  northern  zamlndaris,  now  divided  between  the 
Bilaspur  and  Janjgir  tahsils,  covering  an  area  of  3619 
square  miles,  have  a  density  of  only  50  persons.  In 
Mungeli  tahsil  the  density  of  the  malguzari  area  is  131 
persons  as  against  loi  in  Pandaria  zamindari  and  188  in 
Kanteli. 

43.  The  District  has  three  towns  and  3245  inhabited 
and  202  uninhabited  villages.  The 
population  of  the  towns  in  1901  was — 

Bilaspur  18,937;  Mungeli  5907;  Ratanpur  5479.  The 
total  urban  population  is  30,000  persons  or  just  over 
three  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  District,  this  proportion 
being  smaller  than  that  of  any  District  except  Mandla  and 
Drug.  Since  1881  the  urban  population  has  increased  by 
12,000  persons  or  67  percent.  The  population  of  Bilaspur 
has  nearly  quadrupled  since  1872.  Ratanpur  had  a  larger 
population  in  1891  than  at  any  other  census.  Mungell  is 
really  only  a  large   village,  with  little  or  nothing  of  an  urban 

K 


Towns  and  villages. 


f)f,  UILASPt'U.        !>OpULATION. 

rharaclcr  about  it.  In  1 901  the  three  towns  contained  3095 
Muli;tmmadans  and  719  Clnislians,  Besides  the  towns  the 
District  has  14  vilhnges  with  a  population  of  2000  or  more 
persons.  These  are  Champa  (43' 5),  Pandaria  (3322),  Bam- 
nidih  (2746),  'lakhatpur  (2616),  Baloda  (2603),  Pendra 
(2457),  Salkhan  (2387),  Ganiari  (2353),  Janjgir  (2257), 
Chlmri  (2141),  Akaltara  (2139),  Nawagarh  (2054),  Ghutku 
(2034),  and  Malhir  (2010). 

Seventy-two  villages  or  more  than  two  per  cent,  of 
the  total  contain  between  looo  and  2000  persons,  while 
776  inhabited  villages  contain  less  than  lOO  persons  or  20 
houses. 

44.   A  census  of  the    District  has   now  been    taken   on 
five  occasions,  but  the  emunerations  of 

Movement  of  population.  ,       n  i  ,  • 

1860  and  1872  were  altogether  inac- 
curate. In  1881  the  population  was  returned  at  1,017,327 
persons,  and  showed  an  increase  of  42  per  cent,  on  that  of 
1872,  though  the  registered  excess  of  births  over  deaths  was 
only  9  per  cent.  The  area  of  the  District  was  taken  as 
7798  square  miles  at  this  census.  At  the  first  two  enumera- 
tions the  District  had  been  taken  to  include  the  Feudatory 
States  of  Sakti  and  Kawardha.  In  1891  the  population 
was  1,164,158  persons,  showing  an  increase  of  14^  per 
cent,  on  that  of  1881  as  against  the  average  of  9^  per  cent. 
for  British  Districts.  The  increase  from  the  excess  of 
births  over  deaths  was  1 1  per  cent,  and  a  part  of  the  rise 
at  the  census  must  be  attributed  to  more  accurate  emunera- 
lion  in  the  northern  zai  indaris,  where  the  increase  was  ^ 
per  cent.  At  this  census  the  area  of  the  District  increased 
lo  8341  square  miles,  due  to  correction  in  survey. 

Between  1881  and  1891  both  the  birth  and  death  rates 
were  considerably  below  the  Provincial  average,  but  this 
miy  perhaps  be  attributed  to  deficient  reporting.  In  1901 
the  population  was  1,012,972  persons,  showing  a  decrease 
of  151,168  or  13  per  cent,  on  that  of  1891  as  against 
an     average     of    8.^  per    cent,    for    British    Districts.     The 


STATISTICS    OF    POPULATION,  6/ 

Mungell  tahsll  suffered  most  severely,  losing  24  per  cent, 
of  its  population  as  against  i  O  per  cent,  in  Bilaspur  and  ii 
in  Janjgir.  The  northern  zamlndaris  scarcely  showed  any 
decline  in  population.  Only  some  were  severely  affected  in 
1897,  and  none  in  1900.  Over  the  whole  District  the  num- 
ber of  deaths  exceeded  that  of  births  in  1892,  1896,  1897 
and  1900.  The  reported  excess  of  deaths  over  births  was 
only  19,000  or  106,000  less  than  the  decrease  in  population 
disclosed  by  the  census.  A  considerable  amount  of  emigra- 
tion took  place,  and  the  number  of  persons  who  went  to 
Assam  during  the  decade  was  estimated  at  33,000,  but  a  large 
part  of  the  difference  must  be  attributed  to  the  deficient 
reporting  of  deaths  in  tlie  famine  years.  The  part  which 
suffered  most  severely  was  the  black-soil  area  of  the  Mungeli" 
tahsll,  lying  beneath  the  Maikal  range.  This  tract  including 
also  the  north  of  the  old  Drug  tahsll  and  the  Khairagarh  and 
Nandgaon  States  experienced  a  succession  of  bad  harvests, 
whose  severity  was  only  exceeded  in  the  Vindhyan  Districts 
of  Saugor  and  Damoh. 

In  the  reconstituted  District  the  decrease  in  population 
during  1891 — 1901  was  \2  per  cent,  or  nearly  7  per  cent,  in 
Bilaspur,  more  than  7  per  cent,  in  Janjgir  and  29  per  cent,  in 
Mungell, 

During  the  years  1901  to  1906  the  average  reported 
excess  of  births  over  deaths  was  about  21  per  mille,  which 
on  the  census  population  of  the  reconstituted  District 
would  give  an  increase  of  19,102  persons  or  2  per  cent, 
since  1901. 

45.  Just  over  92  per  cent,  of  the  population  were  shown 
in  1901  as  having  been  born  within  the 

Migration. 

District,  this  proportion  being  the 
highest  in  the  Province  with  the  exception  of  Raipur,  Betul 
and  Bhandara,  Migration  takes  place  to  and  from  all  the 
adjoining  Districts  and  States,  but  it  maybe  noted  that  in 
1 90 1  the  District  had  13,000  immigrants  from  Central  India 
and  7500  from  the  United  Provinces. 


6S  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

46.  The    following  notice  of  diseases   is    based   princi- 
pally on    a    note  supplied  by    Captain 
T.  G.   Stokes,    I. M.S.,    formerly    Civil 
Surgeon  of  the    District.     Malaria,  cholera   and    small-pox 
arc   all  severe   scourges.     In    the   36   years    between  1870 
and    1906    there    were      severe     epidemics    of     cholera   in 
eleven  years.      In    six    of    these    years    more    than     6000 
deaths  occurred    from   the  disease,  and   in    1896    the    total 
was  9000,  or    equivalent  to  a    rate  of  i  i  per    mille    on    the 
population.     During  the  last   few  seasons    it  has  been  less 
virulent.    Cholera  has  in  past  years  generally  originated  from 
the  passage  of  pilgrims  returning  from  the  shrine  of  Jagannath 
in  Orissa,   many   of  whom  being   in  indigent  circumstances 
and  weary  with  the  day's  travel  would  eat  bad   or    uncooked 
food  and  rapidly  develop  disease.    Twenty  years  ago  the  num- 
ber of  sick  and  dead  pilgrims   to  be   seen   along  the   Seorl- 
narayan  road  was  sometimes  appalling.     In  the  hot  weather, 
Captain   Stokes   writes,  it    is   common   to    find    the   village 
entirely  dependent  for  its  water-supply  on  a  stagnant  pool 
which  the  cultivators  share  with    their  cattle.     The  water 
is  frequently  disgustingly  foul  and  aerated  by  bubbles  of  gas 
arising  from  decaying  vegetation  beneath.      When   cholera 
breaks    out    in    a    village,     communications     with    adjoining 
villages  are  stopped,  and  when   one    or   two   deaths    have 
occurred  all  the  people  leave  their  houses  and  camp  out  in  the 
fields  or  forest.     This  system  of  self-quarantine  is  frequently 
followed  by  excellent  results  and  would  also  be  an  efficacious 
remedy  against  the  spread  of  plague.     Mr.  Purshottam  Das, 
Settlement  Officer,  relates  that  during  his  stay  in  Bilaspur  he 
had  seen  several  cases  of  parents  deserting  their  children  when 
attacked  by  cholera  ;  they    put  no  reliance   in  medicine,    and 
believing  that  the  disease  is  caused  by  the  wrath  of  the  goddess, 
consider  it  useless  to  interfere  between  her  and  her  victims. 
47.  Small-pox    is    always    more  or    less   prevalent,   but 
Small-pox  and  plague.       "^'''^    ^'^^    ^^^    depopulating    effect    of 

cholera.     In  the  thirty  years  between 


STATISTICS    OF    POPULATION.  6g 

1870  and  1906  there  was  none  In  which  some  deaths  were 
not  recorded,  the  highest  mortality  being  in  1889  when  more 
than  4000  deaths  were  recorded  or  at  the  rate  of  5|  per  mi  He  of 
population.  The  disease  appears  to  become  most  virulent 
towards  the  close  of  the  cold  weather.  Plague  first  appeared 
in  1904  in  Bilaspur  town,  and  a  number  of  deaths  also  occurred 
in  Mungell  and  at  Gaurela  in  Pendra.  Its  progress  was  checked 
by  inoculation  and  evacuation,  and  later  by  the  wholesale  des- 
truction of  rats.  The  people  readily  leave  their  houses  on  the 
first  appearance  of  the  disease,  and  since  1904  when  the  deaths 
totalled  about  400  no  serious  outbreak  has  again  occurred. 
48.   Bowel  complaints  ^  become    frequent  on  the  setting- 

iu    of  the   rains,  when    the  people  are 
Other  diseases. 

the  subjects  of  considerable  abdominal 

congestion.     The    mortality  is  not  usually  severe,  however, 

except  in  famine  years.  Malaria  usually  accounts  for  about  half 

the  total  mortality  according  to  the  returns  of  vital  statistics 

but  all  kinds  of  fever  are   included  under    this  term.     Very 

severe   cases  of  malarial  cachexia  come  from    the  northern 

zamindaris  where  the  jungle  is    densest.     The   commonest 

form  appears  to  be  benign  tertian  ague. 

Blindness  is  very  common  and  of  many  forms.  It  is  pro- 
bably due  partly  to  the  ulceration  of  the  cornea  during  severe 
illnesses,  and  partly  to  conjunctivitis  brought  on  by  smoky 
houses  and  dirt.  In  1901  the  number  of  such  cases  was  17 
per  10,000  of  population,  women  being  to  men  as  10  to  7. 

Leprosy  is  also  fairly  common,  the  proportion  of  lepers 
being  67  per  10,000  of  population  in  1901  or  the  fifth 
highest  in  the  Province.  Males  were  to  females  in  the  pro- 
portion of  four  to  three.  The  disease  is  prevalent  among 
the  lower  classes  and  is  chiefly  of  the  tubercular  form.  The 
District  has  two  leper  asylums  at  Mungeli  and  Champa 
maintained  by  missionary  bodies  with  the  assistance  of  small 
allowances  from  Governm.ent. 

^  The  remainder  of  the  notice  of  diseases  is  taken  verbatim  from  Captain 
Stokes'  report. 


JO  DILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

The  disease  of  syphilis  is  widely  prevalent  in  llie  Dis^ 
trict,  especially  among  the  low  castes.  It  is  attributed  to 
dirty  habits  combined  with  the  lax  morality  of  tiie  people. 
The  awful  disfigurements  produced  by  advanced  syphilis  may 
be  seen  every  day  on  the  roads  and  in  tlie  bazars,  and  the 
hospitals  teem  with  cases  in  every  stage  of  development. 
T  he  alTcction  is  hardly  regarded  as  a  disgrace  and  patients 
speak  of  it  to  their  friends  without  much  reserve. 

Skin  diseases  are  also  very  common  and  are  worst  when 
the  rainfall  has  been  scanty  and  the  hot  weather  supervenes 
with  much  dust. 

Stone  is  a  prevalent  disease,  but  to  a  less  degree  than 
in  Raipur.  Elephantiasis  is  especially  common  in  the  water- 
logged town  of  Ratanpur.  It  generally  appears  in  the  lower 
extremities  and  people  may  be  met  daily  round  the  town 
with  the  characteristic  symptoms,  but  they  seldom  apply  for 
treatment  for  this  disease. 

49.  In    1901,  as  many  as  84^  per  cent,  of  the  population 

were  supported  by    pasture    and  agri- 
Occupation,  ft  J     f  o 

culture,  this  proportion  being  about 
the  highest  in  the  Province.  Even  of  the  remaining  popula- 
tion a  considerable  proportion  are  village  artisans  and 
menials,  who  are  directly  dependent  on  agriculture  for  their 
livelihood.  Only  i  \  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  supported 
by  household  service,  this  being  a  smaller  number  than 
in  any  District  e.xcept  Mandla  and  Betul.  About  22,00O 
persons  or  2  per  cent,  of  the  total  are  supported  by  the  cotton 
industry.  About  4000  persons  are  en  gaged  in  religious 
services  and  nearly  10,000  are  beggars. 

50.  The  Chhattlsgarhl  dialect   of  Eastern  Hindi  is  the 

main  vernacular   of  the  District  and  is 

Chhrtfisgarhi.  spoken  by  more  than  90  percent,  of  the 

population.^        Eastern    Hindi     is    the 

*  Tlie  followinjj  desciiptioti  of  Chliattisgai  hi  is  taken  from  a  note 
fu'-ni«hed  by  Dr.  Grierson  f-r  the  C.  P.  Census  Report  of  1901,  and  from  the 
notice  of  Chhattisgarhi  in  the  Records  of  the  Linguistic  Survey  (Vol,  VI, 
Eastoi  n  Hindi). 


STATISTICS    OF    POPULATION.  7^ 

language  spoken  in  Oudh  and  the  centre  of  the  United 
Provinces,  being  bounded  by  Western  Hindi  on  the  west 
and  Bihari  on  the  east.  Three  maiii  dialects  of  this  language 
are  classified  by  Dr.  Grierson — Awadhl,  the  dialect  of  Oudh, 
Bagheli,  that  of  Baghelkhand  or  Purva,and  Chhattlsgarhl. 
Awadhl  and  Bagheli  are,  however,  practically  identical  and  are 
only  separated  by  him  in  deference  to  popular  custom. 
Bagheli  is  spoken  in  the  Central  Provinces  in  Jubbulpore 
and  Mandla,  and  Dr.  Grierson  considers  that  the  Eastern 
Hindi  of  Chhattlsgarh  found  its  way  through  Jubbulpore  and 
Mandla,  being  introduced  by  the  Aryans  who  originally 
settled  there.  It  is  probable  that  the  Hindu  immigration 
which  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  HaihayavansI  dynasty  of 
Ratanpur  took  this  route.  Thenceforth  owing  to  its  geo- 
graphical isolation  the  dialect  developed  its  peculiarities.  It 
does  not  differ  so  much  from  the  Bagiiell  dialect  as  is  com- 
monly supposed,  and  Dr.  Grierson  is  of  opinion  that  if  a 
Chhattlsgarhl  speaker  was  set  down  in  Oudh  he  would  find 
himself  at  home  with  the  language  of  the  locality  in  a  week. 
The  termination  of  the  past  tense  in  is,  as  kaliis,  he  said, 
maris,  he  struck,  which  is  what  everybody  notices  in 
Chhattlsgarhl,  is  pre-eminently  the  typical  shibboleth  of  a 
speaker  of  Eastern  Hindi  and  is  commonly  heard  in  Calcutta 
from  servants  belonging  to  Oudh.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  these  words  are  really  the  relics  of  a  passive  formation, 
the  correct  word  being  mdr-y-as,  which  means  it  was  struck 
by  him.  The  use  of  o  for  the  genitive  of  the  personal 
pronouns  as  mor,  tor,  my,  thy,  also  belongs  to  all  the  Eastern 
Hindi  dialects,  as  also  the  past  tense  bliave,  was,  and  the  use 
of  raliand  for  the  past  imperfect,  <kkhai  rahctin,  I  was  seeing. 
Peculiarities  of  Chhattlsgarhl  noted  by  Dr.  Grierson  are  the 
formation  of  the  plural  in  iiian,  as  laikdman,  boys,  the  instru- 
mental in  an  as  bhfiklian,  by  hunger,  and  the  addition  oUiar 
to  a  noun  to  give  definition  as  gar-har,  the  neck.  This  last 
belongs  also  to  the  Bihari  of  Chutia  Nagpur.  To  indicate 
the  plural  sab,  sabo,   sabbo,jamd,  or  jamnid  may  be  prefixed 


72  DU^SPUR.       POPULATION. 

with  or  without  tiiofi ;  thus  jnmmd  pnto-man  the  daughters- 
in-law.  An  old  form  of  the  plural  ends  in  an,  thus  baild  a 
bullock,  plural  hailan.  In  declension  the  following  post- 
positions are  added  to  the  noun  which  remains  unchanged  ;  kd^ 
to  (also  denotes  accusative) ;  Id,  for  (also  denotes  accusative)  ; 
bar,  for ;  le,  se,  by,  from  ;  fee,  of;  md,  in.  The  ke  of  the  genitive 
docs  not  change  ;  example  iail'd,  a  boy  ;  laikd-kd,  to  a  boy  ; 
laikd  h\  of  a  boy  ;  laikd-inan  kc,  of  boys  Tliere  is  no  differ- 
ence between  the  conjugation  of  transitive  and  of  intransitive 
verbs  The  construction  of  the  past  tense  is  always  active, 
not  passive.  Tlie  syllables  cch  and  och,  meaning  even  and 
also,  are  profusely  used  in  ordinary  conversation.  Thus 
dai-ch-kd,  even  to  the  mother;  tor-och,  thine  also.  Chhattls- 
garhi  is  also  known  as  Khaltahl  or  the  language  of  the 
Khaloti  or  lowlands,  a  name  given  by  residents  of  the  Maikal 
hills  to  the  Chhattisgarh  plain.  In  the  Uriya  country  the 
Chhattisgarh  plain  is  known  as  Laria,  and  the  same  name  is 
given  to  the  language.  Chhattlsgarhl  has  no  literature  but  a 
grammar  of  the  dialect  has  been  written  in  Hindi  by 
Mr.  Hira  Lai  Kavyopadhyaya  and  translated  by  Dr. 
Grierson.'  But  Awadhl,  the  kindred  dialect  to  Chhat- 
tisparhi,  has  a  vast  literature  including  the  Ramayana  of 
Tulsi  Das. 

51.  The   Baghell  dialect,    belonging  to  Baghelkhand  or 
n,,      ,  Rewnh,     which    is    the    vernacular    of 

other  languages. 

Jubbulpore  and  Mandla,  is  spoken  in  the 
northern  zamlndaris  adjoining  Rewah  by  53,000  persons. 
These  zamlndaris,  Pendra  and  the  others  adjoining  it,  lie  in 
the  Rewah  plateau  and  are  not  really  a  part  of  the  Chhattis- 
garh country.  Most  of  the  Gonds  speak  Chhattisgarh!  with 
a  slight  admixture  of  Dravidian  words,  Gondi  proper  being 
returned  by  only  2000  persons.  About  18,000  persons  speak 
Uriya. 


»  J. A  S.B..  Vol.  LIX,  1890.  Pt.  I.  Separate  reprint,  Calcutta,  iSyo. 


Hcininsc,  Coilo.,  Derby. 

ENTRANCE  TO  TEMPLE.  KHAROD. 


RELIGION.  71 

RELIGION. 

52.  The  statistics  of  religion  show  that  Hindus  constitute 

89    per    cent,  of   the     population    and 

Principal  statistics.        ^^j^^j^^^    ,0   per  cent.     Tliere  are  only 

about  10.000  Muhammadans,  252  Jains  and  1959  Christians. 

The  Hinduism  of  Chhattisgarh,  however,  presents  little  real 

distinction  from  ordinary  Animism,  and  the  religion  of  the 

common    people    is    made   up   of   a    mass    of    superstitions 

concerning  witches,  demons  and  spirits  of  all  kinds. 

53    The  principal  of  the  rural  deities  is  Thakur  Deo,  the 

tutelary   god   of  the  village  and  crops. 
Village  deities.  ,,      .  ,.     ,       ,         ,      ,   , 

He  often  dwells  in  a  little  thatched  hut 

outside  the  village.  The  deity  is  represented  by  a  number  of 
stones  of  different  shapes  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  dwell, 
and  various  pebbles  and  rock  crystals  or  remains  of  cut  stone 
from  temples  are  added  to  the  -heap.  Once  in  four  or  five 
years  the  worship  of  Thakur  Deo  is  performed  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  Pola  festival,  being  known  as  garbh  puja.  A 
public  subscription  is  raised  because  the  worship  is  performed 
for  the  whole  village  to  secure  abundance  of  the  crops  and 
their  immunity  from  disease.  A  black  and  tan  goat  and 
a  pig  are  sacrificed  to  him  on  this  occasion.  All  the  men  of 
the  village  keep  awake  the  whole  night,  and  in  the  morning 
the  village  Baiga  cries  horribly,  beats  a  sort  of  drum  and 
works  himself  up  into  a  fit,  when  he  is  supposed  to  be 
possessed  by  the  deity.  He  then  orders  the  god  to  be 
brought  forth  from  his  shrine  and  the  pebbles  are  taken  out, 
washed  in  milk  and  water,  and  covered  with  a  new  white  cloth. 
All  the  people  take  their  food  at  the  place  and  in  the  evening 
the  cloth  is  lifted  off  and  it  is  believed  that  the  number  of 
stones  is  increased  or  diminished  by  one.  This  trick  is  no 
doubt  done  by  the  Baiga's  sleight-of-hand,  but  is  taken 
by  the  people  as  an  indication  of  the  presence  of  the  god; 
Sometimes  the  Baiga  says  that  Thakur  Deo  has  been  lost 
from  the  village,  and  then  he  takes  a  boy  and  puts  some 
magic  powder  into  his  eyes    and  sends  him  out  to  search   for 

L 


74  niLASI'UK.       POPULATION. 

Thfikui-  Deo.  The  boy  brings  back  some  pebbles,  and  the 
Baigfi  places  these  in  a  bowl  of  milk,  when  it  is  said  that 
they  swell.  But  one  of  the  pebbles  disappears,  and  the  boy 
on  being  again  sent  to  search  for  it,  ultimately  finds  it  in 
Thakur  Deo's  siirine,  a  proof  that  the  god  has  come  back  to 
the  village.  Dulha  Deo  is  the  household  god  and  a  corner 
of  each  hearth  is  set  apart  for  him.  He  was  a  young  bride- 
groom who  was  carried  off  by  a  tiger  on  liis  way  to  his  wed- 
ding. The  Gonds  say  that  it  was  Dulha  Deo's  untoward 
fate  which  gave  rise  to  their  universal  custom  of  sending  the 
bride  to  be  married  at  the  bridegroom's  house.  The  Rawats 
worship  Dulha  Deo  at  Diwali  and  one  of  them  becomes  pos- 
sessed by  him  and  goes  about  beating  everything  he  sees 
with  a  stick.  Then  the  people  say  '  Dulha  Deo  a  gayd^  or 
the  god  has  come  upon  him.  Two  men  catch  hold  of  him 
and  put  peacock's  feathers  on  his  neck  and  arms,  and  he 
goes  and  dances  about.  Uneducated  people  are  easily  sub- 
ject to  such  fits  of  religious  frenzy  as  is  shown  in  many  other 
countries. 

54.   Banjari  Deo  dwells  in  the  forest  and  travellers  appeal 

to  him  to  protect  them  from  the  attacks 

^  J.liage    gods-conti-     ^f  ^^jj^  \,^^^^^.     He  is    represented  by 

a  heap  of  stones  by  the  roadside  at 
the  entrance  of  the  forest  and  every  traveller  makes  his  sup- 
plication by  adding  a  stone  to  the  heap.  He  is  also  worshipped 
for  the  protection  of  cattle,  and  forest  fruits  such  as  chironji,^ 
wild  plums  and  toidir  are  offered  to  him.  Dongarpat  is  the 
hill  godling  who  prevents  earthquakes  and  volcanic  erup- 
tions and  keeps  off  frost.  It  is  said  that  on  a  hill  known 
as  Lachhman  Dongri  in  the  forest  of  Lormi  a  light  appears 
at  times  and  burns  for  half  an  hour  during  the  night.  This 
is  a  manifestation  of  Dongarpat  and  it  is  said  that  the  tahutdar 
of  Lormi  always  went  and  worshipped  at  the  hill.  Maswasi- 
pat  is  the  god  of  hunting  and  hunters  make  an  offering  to 

*   Fruit  of  c/i(/r  (Duchcuaitia  lati/olia). 
'  Dio^pyrvs  totiieiifosa. 


RELIGION.  75 

him  before  setting  out  on  expeditions.     He  is  supposed  to 
influence   a  certain  part   of   the   forest  and  will  bring    the 
game    into    it   so    that  the  hunter  can    shoot  it  easily.     Chi- 
tharhai    Devi  is  the  goddess    of   rags  and  people   give  her  a 
bit  of  old  rag,  hanging  it  on   a  thorny  tree,  in  the  hope  that 
in  return  for  it  they  will  obtain  a  new  cloth.     They    say  'Oh 
Devi,  we  give  you  our  old  cloth,  give  us  a  new, one.'     Trees 
may  occasionally  be   seen    covered    with  pieces  of  rag  which 
are   thus  offered  to  the   goddess.     Once   a  year   in  the  dark 
fortnight   of  the   month  of  Magh    the    lower  castes  offer  a 
sacrifice  to  Rat  Mai  or  the  night  mother.     Only  the  members 
of  the  household  join  in  it  and  previous  to  the  sacrifice  they 
fast  all  day.     Sweet  oil  is  burnt  in  a  lamp  and  covered  with  a 
brass  plate,  and  with  the  lamp-black    thus  obtained  curved 
lines   are  drawn  over  the  walls  of  the    house.     The   sacrifice 
consists  of  a  black  she-goat  or  a  pig,  and  after  the  sacrificial 
animal   has  once  entered  the  door  of  the  house  no  portion  of 
its   body  must  be  taken  out  again.     The  flesh  is  cooked  and 
eaten,   and  the    head  is  placed  erect  on  the  ground,   offerings 
of  grain   and  vegetables  being  made  to  it.     The   worshippers 
sit  round  it  and   sing   songs  in    praise  of  the  night   mother- 
Next  day  the  head  is  also  eaten  and  the  refuse  is  buried  in  a 
hole  dug  at  the  side  of  the  main  door  of  the  house. 

55.  The  agricultural  year  begins  on  Akti  or  the  3rd  day 

of  Baisakh  (April-May).  On  that  day 
wiurcSaZ: "^^'         ^  ^"P  «^^de  of  palas  leaves   and    filled 

with  rice  is  offered  to  Thakur  Deo. 
In  some  villages  the  boys  sow  rice  seeds  before  Thakur 
Deo's  shrine  with  little  toy  ploughs.  The  cultivator  then 
goes  to  his  field  and  covering  his  hand  with  wheat  flour  and 
turmeric,  stamps  it  five  times  on  the  plough.  The  malguzar 
takes  five  handfuls  of  the  seed  consecrated  to  Thakur  Deo 
and  sows  it,  and  each  of  the  cultivators  also  sows  a  little. 
After  this  regular  cultivation  may  begin  on  any  day,  though 
Monday  and  Friday  are  considered  auspicious  days  for  the 
commencement  of  sowing.     On  the  Hareli,  or  festival  of  the 


7(5  BILASI'UK.       POPULATION. 

frcbh  verdure,  which  falls  on  the  15th  day  of  Shrawan 
(July-August),  balls  of  flour  mixed  with  salt  are  given  to  the 
cattle.  The  plough  and  all  the  implements  of  agriculture 
arc  taken  to  a  tank  and  washed,  and  are  then  set  up  in  the 
courtyard  of  the  house  and  plastered  with  cow-dung.  The 
plough  is  set  facing  towards  the  sun,  and  ^// J  and  sugar 
arc  olTcrcd  to  it.  An  earthen  pot  is  white-washed  and 
human  figures  arc  drawn  on  it  with  charcoal,  one  upside  down. 
li  is  tlicn  hung  over  the  entrance  to  the  house  and  is  believed 
to  avert  the  evil  eye.  All  the  holes  in  the  cattle-sheds 
and  court-yards  arc  filled  and  levelled  with  gravel.  While 
the  rice  is  growing,  holidays  are  observed  on  five  Sundays 
and  no  work  is  done.  Before  harvest  Thakur  Deo  must  be 
propitiated  with  an  offering  of  a  white  goat  or  a  black  fowl. 
Anyone  who  beguis  to  cut  his  crop  before  this  offering  has 
been  made  to  Thakur  Deo  is  fined  the  price  of  a  goat  by  the 
village  community.  Before  threshing  his  corn  each  cultivator 
offers  a  separate  sacrifice  to  Thakur  Deo,  of  a  goat,  a  fowl 
or  a  broken  cocoanut.  Each  evening  on  the  conclusion 
of  a  day's  threshing,  a  wisp  of  straw  is  rubbed  on  the  fore- 
head of  each  bullock  and  a  hair  is  then  pulled  from  its  tail, 
and  the  hairs  and  straw  made  into  a  bundle  are  tied  to  the 
pole  of  the  threshing-floor.  The  cultivator  prays  '  Oh  1  God 
of  plenty,  enter  here  full  and  go  out  empty.'  Before  leaving 
the  threshing-floor  for  the  night  some  straw  is  burnt  and 
three  circles  are  drawn  with  the  ashes,  one  round  the  heap 
of  grain  and  the  others  round  the  pole.  Outside  the  circles 
are  drawn  pictures  of  the  sun,  the  mocn,  a  lion  and  a  mon- 
key, or  of  a  cart  and  a  pair  of  bullocks.  Next  morning  before 
sunrise  the  ashes  are  swept  away  by  waving  a  winnowing  fan 
over  ihcm.  This  ceremony  is  called  anjan  chaiUidna  or 
placing  lamp-black  on  the  face  of  the  threshing-floor  to 
avert  the  evil  eye,  as  women  put  it  on  their  eyes.  Before  the 
grain  is  measured  it  must  be  stacked  in  the  form  of  a 
trapezium  with  the  shorter  end  to  the  south,  and  not  in  that 
of  a  square  or   oblong  heap.     The    measurer  stands  facing 


RELIGION.  TJ 

Ihe  east,  and  having  the  shorter  end  of  the  heap  on  his  left 
hand.  On  the  larger  side  of  the  heap  are  laid  the  kalara 
or  hook,  a  winnowing  fan,  \.\\^dann^.  rope  by  which  the 
bullocks  are  tied  to  the  threshing  pole,  one  or  three  branches 
of  the  ber  or  wild  plum  tree,  and  the  twisted  bundle  of  straw 
and  hairs  of  tlie  bullocks  which  had  been  tied  to  the  pole. 
On  the  top  of  the  heap  are  placed  five  balls  of  cow-dung  and 
the  hum  or  fire  sacrifice  is   oft'ered  to  it. 

The  first  kdlha  '  of  rice  measured  is  also  laid  by  the 
heap.  The  measurer  never  quite  empties  his  measure  while 
the  work  is  going  on,  as  it  is  feared  that  if  he  does  this,  the 
god  of  abundance  will  leave  the  threshing-floor.  While 
measuring  he  should  always  wear  a  turban.  It  is  considered 
unlucky  for  any  one  who  has  ridden  on  an  elephant  to  enter 
the  threshing-floor,  but  a  person  who  has  ridden  on  a  tiger 
brings  luck.  Consequently  the  Gonds  and  Bhumias,  if  they 
capture  a  young  tiger  and  tame  it,  will  take  it  round  the 
country  and  the  cultivators  pay  them  a  little  to  give  their 
children  a  ride  on  it.  To  enter  a  threshing-floor  with  shod 
feet  is  also  unlucky.  Grain  is  not  usually  measured  at  noon 
but  in  the  morning  or  evening. 

56.  The  cultivators  think  that  each  grain  should  bear  a 

hundred-fold,  but  they  do  not  get   this 
^_^Agricultural  supersti-     ^5  Y.Mvtx,  the  treasurer  of  the  gods,  or 

Bhainsasur,  the  demon  who  lives  in 
the  fields,  takes  it.  Bhainsasur  is  worshipped  when  the  rice  is 
coming  into  ear,  and  if  they  think  he  is  likely  to  be  mischiev- 
ous they  give  him  a  pig,  but  otherwise  a  smaller  offering 
When  the  standing  corn  in  the  fields  is  beaten  down  at  night 
they  think  that  Bhainsasur  has  been  passing  over  it.  He 
also  steals  the  crop  Vv'hile  it  is  being  cut  and  is  lying  on  the 
giound.  Once  Bhainsasur  was  absent  while  the  particular 
field  in  the  village  from  which  he  stole  his  annual  provision 
was  cut  and  the  crop  removed,  and  afterwards  he  was 
heard  crying   that   all  his  grain  for   the  year   had   been   lost. 

^  A  mtasui  c  coutaiuing  y  lbs.  2  oz.  of  rice. 


78  nil.ASPUR.       rOIMILATlON. 

Sometimes  the  oldest  man  in  tlic  house  cuts  the  first  five 
bundles  of  the  crop  and  they  are  afterwards  left  in  the  fields 
for  the  birds  to  eat.  And  at  the  end  of  harvest  the  last  one 
or  two  sheaves  are  left  standing  in  the  field  and  anyone 
who  likes  can  cut  and  carry  them  away.  In  some 
localities  the  last  sheaves  are  left  standing  in  the  field 
and  are  known  as  harhuna,  or  the  giver  of  increase. 
Then  all  the  labourers  rush  together  at  this  last  patch 
of  corn  and  tear  it  up  by  the  roots  ;  everybody  seizes  as 
much  as  he  can  keeps  it,  the  master  having  no  share 
in  this  patch.  After  the  harhond  has  been  torn  up  all 
the  labourers  fall  on  their  faces  to  the  ground  and  worship 
the  field.  In  other  places  the  harhond  is  left  standing 
for  the  birds  to  eat.  This  custom  arises  from  the  belief 
that  the  corn-spirit  takes  refuge  in  the  last  patch  of  grain, 
and  that  when  it  is  cut  he  flies  away  or  his  life  is 
extinguished.  And  the  belief  is  supported  by  the  fact  that 
the  rat  and  other  vermin,  who  have  been  living  in  the 
field,  seek  shelter  in  the  last  patch  of  corn,  and  when  this  is 
cut  have  to  dart  out  in  front  of  the  reapers.  In  some  coun- 
tries it  is  believed  tliat  the  corn-spirit  takes  refuge  in  the 
body  of  one  of  these  animals 

57.  The  headquarters  of  the  Mahant  of  the  Kabirpanthi 
.,  .  ,  sect  are  at  Kawardha,  a  State  which 

The  Kabirpaiitlii  nect. 

was  formerly  attached  to  Bilaspur,  and 
th.e  principal  religious  fair  of  the  sect  is  held  at  Kudarmal 
in  the  Janjgir  tahsil.  Some  description  of  the  sect  may 
therefore  properly  find  a  place  in  a  notice  of  the  religion 
of  the  Bilaspur  District.  The  reformer  Kabir,  who 
flourished  between  14S8— 1512  A.D.,  was  the  founder  of  a 
sect  attempting  to  reconcile  the  Hindu  and  Muhammadan 
religions.  Various  legends  have  now  gathered  about  his  life. 
According  to  the  story  told  in  the  Bhakta  Mala  he  was  the 
son  of  a  virgin  Brahman  widow,  who  had  been  taken  at  her 
request  to  see  the  great  reformer  Ramanand.  He,  unaware 
of  her  condition,   saluted   her   with   the  benediction  which  he 


RELIGION,  79 

thought  acceptable  to  all  women  and  wished  her  tlie 
conception  of  a  son.  His  words  could  not  be  recalled  and 
the  widow  conceived,  but  in  order  to  escape  the  disgrace 
which  would  attach  to  her,  exposed  the  child,  which  was 
found  by  a  weaver  and  his  wife  and  brought  up  by 
them.  This  child  was  Kabir.  Another  version  of  the 
story  is  that  the  weaver's  wife  found  the  child,  who  was 
the  deity  incarnate,  floating  on  a  lotus  leaf  like  Moses  in 
the  Nile  on  an  ark.  In  any  case  the  common  belief  is 
that  Kablr  was  brought  up  in  a  weaver's  family.  He 
became  a  drastic  reformer,  setting  himself  against  the  whole 
body  of  Hindu  superstition.  He  rejected  and  ridiculed 
the  Shastras  and  Puranas  ;  severely  chastised  the  arrogance 
and  hypocrisy  of  the  Brahmans ;  and  abolished  every 
malevolent  distinction  of  caste,  religion  and  sect.  He 
taught  that  all  who  love  God  and  do  good  are  bro'.hers, 
be  they  Hindus  or  Muharamadans.  Idolatry  and  everything 
whicli  approaches  to  it  or  suggests  it  is  severely  con- 
demned and  the  temple  should  be  only  a  house  of  prayer. 
Salvation,  according  to  him,  consists  in  attaining  the  highest 
knowledge,  when  it  will  be  perceived  that  this  world  is 
an  illusion  and  that  the  human  and  supreme  soul  are  one. 
He  considered  the  destruction  of  animal  life  in  any  form 
to  be  a  crime.  The  doctrines  of  Kablr  are  embodied  in 
a  great  variety  of  works  in  different  dialects  of  Hindi. 
They  are  the  compositions  of  his  disciples,  who  are  known 
as  Das  Kablr,  but  are  generally  in  the  form  of  dialogues 
and  profess  to  give  his  utterances  and  replies  to  questions. 
Kablr  left  behind  him  a  large  number  of  apothegms  and 
pithy  sayings  or  texts,  which  are  constantly'  on  the  lips  of 
the  educated  classes,  both  Hindu  and  Muhammadan,  at 
the  present  day.  The  influence  of  his  teachings  extended 
far  beyond  the  limits  of  his  own  sect  ;  Guru  Nanak,  the 
founder  of  the  Sikh  religion,  was  chiefly  indebted  for  his 
religious  ideas  to  Kabir,  and  Dadu,  another  reformer,  also 
borrowed  largely  from  him. 


go  nii.Asri'n.     ropi'i.ATioN. 

58.  One  nf  tlic  converts  of  the    prophet   was    Dharam 

D'ls,  a  Kasaundlian    Bania,  who  distri- 
II,.-  K;.i.npa..ti.i  Ma-      j^^^^^j  ^jj  ,,jg  ^vealth,  eighteen  lakhs  of 

hnnts. 

rupees,  at  Kabir's  bidding  and  became 
a  mendicant.  In  reward  for  this  Kabir  promised  him  that 
his  family  should  endure  for  forty-two  generations.  The 
Mahants  of  Kawardha  claim  to  be  the  direct  descendants  of 
Dharam  Das.  Tliey  marry  among  Kasaundhan  Banias  and 
their  sons  are  initiated  and  succeed  them  There  are  now  two 
Mahants  -  Dhirajn'MTi  Saliib  and  Ugranam  Sahib — both  of 
whom  claim  to  be  the  legitimate  possessor  of  the  gadiii  or 
headship  of  the  sect.  Ugranam  was  born  of  a  Marar  woman, 
and  though  acclaimed  as  the  successor  of  his  father,  was 
challenged  by  Dhlrajnam,  whose  parentage  was  legitimate. 
Their  disputes  led  to  a  case  in  the  Bombay  High  Court 
which  was  decided  in  favour  of  Dhirajnam  and  he  accordingly 
occupies  the  seat  at  Kawardha.  But  he  is  unpopular  and 
little  attention  is  paid  to  him.  Ugranam  lives  at  Kudarmal 
in  Janjgir  tahsil  and  enjoys  the  real  homage  of  the  followers 
of  the  sect,  who  say  iliat  13hTraj  is  the  official  Maliant,  but 
Ugra  the  people's  Mahant.  The  principal  meeting  place  of  the 
Kabirpanthis  is  the  fair  at  Kudarmal  where  they  pay  their 
respects  to  the  Mahant  and  novices  are  initiated. 

59.  In   the    Central    Provinces   the  weaving  castes    are 

usually    Kabirpanthis    because     Kablr 

Meinbci  s  of  the  sect. 

was  a  weaver.  The  Brahmans  call  it 
the  weaver's  religion.  The  Pankas  are  nearly  all  Kabirpanthis 
and  it  is  probable  that  they  are  really  Gandas  who  have 
adopted  this  religion  and  become  a  fresh  caste  with  a  view  to 
raising  their  social  position.  Many  Koris,  Balahis,  Koshtis 
and  Mah.irs  belong  to  the  sect.  But  it  is  professed  too  by 
others  of  the  lower  castes,  especially  theTelis,  who  also  have 
the  aim  of  escaping  from  their  despised  position  in  the  caste 
system  and  by  Chamars  and  Dhobis,  wliile  a  certain  number 
of  members  of  higher  castes  belong  to  it,  as  the  Kurmls, 
Ahirs    and    Lodhis.      The    total    number    of   Kabirpanthis 


RELIGION.  8 1 

returned  in  tlie  Province  in  1901  was  nearly  half  a  million, 
of  whom  99,260  were  residents  of  Bilaspur.  The  sect  is 
probably  slightly  gaining  in  popularity. 

60.  The  initiation  of  a  Kabu-panthI  is  called  chankd.     A 
pot  of  water  is  placed  on  the  ground 

Customs  and  character       ^^j^|^  ^  j^^^       ^^^^.  j.   ^^^j  songS  are  SUng 
of  the  sect,  r  j  ^  <-• 

in  praise  of  Kablr  to  the  music  of 
cymbals.  A  blra^  consisting  of  betelvine,  raw  sugar  and  a 
little  of  the  core  of  the  cocoanut,  is  eaten  by  the  person  to  be 
initiated  and  each  member  of  his  family,  and  a  mantra  or 
sacred  verse  is  whispered  in  his  ear.  The  gitj-ii  teaches  him 
morning  and  evening  prayers.  A  knnthl  or  small  garland  of 
beads  is  tied  round  his  neck  and  the  initiation  is  complete. 
Though  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  underlying  object  of 
Kablr's  preaching  was  the  abolition  of  the  social  tyranny  of 
the  caste  system,  which  is  the  most  real  and  to  the  lower 
classes  the  most  hateful  and  burdensome  feature  of  Hinduism  ; 
yet  as  in  the  case  of  so  many  other  reformers  his  crusade  has 
failed  and  a  man  who  becomes  a  Kabh'panthl  does  not  cease 
to  be  a  member  of  his  caste  or  to  conform  to  its  observances. 
And  a  few  Brahmans  who  have  become  Kablrpanthls,  though 
renounced  by  their  own  caste,  have  it  is  said  been  com- 
pensated by  receiving  high  posts  in  the  hierarchy  of  the  sect. 
Only  on  the  13th  day  of  Bhadon,  which  was  the  birthday  of 
Kablr,  as  many  Kablrpanthls  as  can  meet  at  the  headquarters 
of  the  gunc  take  food  together  without  distinction  of  caste  in 
memory  of  their  founder's  doctrine.  The  principal  distinction 
between  the  Kabirpanlhis  and  other  Hindus  of  the  middle 
and  lower  castes  in  Chhattisgarh  is  that  the  former  do  not 
eat  meat  and  the  latter  do.  Hindus  of  the  lower  classes  other 
tlian  Kablrpanthls  and  Satnamis  are  often  known  as  Saktahas. 
Still  the  sect  affords  to  the  uneducated  classes  a  somewhat 
higher  ideal  of  spiritual  belief  and  life  than  the  chaotic 
medley  of  primitive  superstitions  and  beliefs  in  witchcraft 
and  devil-worship,  from  which  the  Brahmans,  caring  only 
for    the    recognition    of  their    social  supremacy,    make    no 

M 


82  nii.Asri'R.     roiM'i.ATioN. 

attempt  to  raise  them.  Besides  the  head  of  the  sect, 
there  are  other  giints  or  priests,  known  as  Bliandaris  or 
Mahants,  to  whom  he  delegates  his  powers  ;  and  tliere  is  also 
an  order  of  mendicant  friars,  who  travel  about  dressed  in  long 
while  robes  and  make  proselytes  for  the  sect.  The  Kabir- 
panthis  bury  their  dead. 

6i.  Christians  numbered    1959   in    1901,  of  whom    188 
were    Europeans,    94    Eurasians    and 

Christians.  ^  .  ,,.,-  .  ^       . 

1679  natives.    Bilaspur  is  an  important 

railway   centre  and  this  accounts  for   ths  comparatively  large 

number  of  Europeans  and   Eurasians.      In  1891    there   were 

less  than  300  native  Christians.     The  bulk  of  the   converts 

belong  to  the  German  Evangelical  Clmrch  of  America  and  to 

an  American  Evangelical  Church,  the  Disciples  of  Christ.  This 

body  started  work  at  Bilaspur  in    1885  under  the  Rev    M.  D. 

Adams.    The  institutions  maintained  by  it  now  comprise  eight 

boys'  schools,  two  girls'  schools,  a  girls'  orphanage,  a  women's 

and  children's  hospital  and  a  church.     A  second  station  under 

the  Kev.  G.   \V.  Jackson   was  opened  at   MungelT   in    18S8, 

and  here  also  a  church,   two   hospitals,  a   leper   asylum   and 

schools  are  now  supported  by  the  mission.     A  third  station 

was  opened   at  Pendra  Road   in    I90[    by  Rev.   N.  Madsen, 

where  an  orphanage,  schools   and  dispensary  are  conducted 

and   an    attempt    is  being    made   to   colonize    Christians    on 

jungle  land.     The   Mennonite  Mission  also   have  stations   in 

Champa  and  Janjgir,     The  German  Evangelical    Church  has 

an  important  mission  at  Chandkhuii.  which  formed  part  of 

Bilaspur  up  till  1906,  but  is  now  in  the  Drug  District.     This 

Mission    has  recentl}'  opened  a  new  station  at  Portha  on  the 

Sakti  Stale  border.     Bilaspur  is  in    the   Anglican  diocese  of 

Nagpur,  and  is  visited   by  a  chaplain  from   Raipur.     It  is  in 

the  Roman    Catholic  diocese  of  Nagpur. 

CASTE. 

62    The   castes    which    are   numerically    most    import- 
ant are  the   Chamars,  who  constitute  20 
General    lemarks.  ' 

per  cent,  of  the  population  and  the  Gonds 


CASTE.  83 

(14  per  cent.).  Other  fairly  strong  castes  are  the  Ahirs  or 
Rawats,  the  Kurmis  and  the  Kawars.  The  proprietors  of 
eight  out  of  the  ten  zamindari  estates  belong  to  the  Tavvar 
subcaste  of  the  Kawar  tribe,  while  the  zamlndars  of  Pandaria 
and  Kanteli  are  Raj-Gonds.  Outside  the  zamindaris  the 
principal  casi.es  of  proprietors  are  Brahmans,  BaniSs  and 
Kurmis.  The  Chamars  own  some  villages,  but  are  idle  and 
slovenly  cultivators.  The  Brahmans  constitute  only  3  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  but  hold  nearly  450  or  26  per  cent,  of 
the  nialguziri  villages.  The  advent  of  the  Maratha  Brahmans 
dates  from  the  time  of  Bimbaji  Bhonsla,  about  the  middle  of 
the  1 8th  centur3^  They  exercised  great  influence  on  the 
Maratha  Government  and  managed  to  secure  a  large  number 
of  villages,  both  in  ordinary  malguzari  right  and  as  rent-free 
assignments.  The  Brahmans  of  Chhattisgarh  belong  to  the 
Kanaujia  and  Sarwaria  groups  of  Northern  India.  They  say 
that  they  have  been  settled  in  the  country  for  fifty  genera- 
tions, audit  is  believed  that  a  considerable  influx  of  Brahmans 
took  place  in  the  time  of  Raja  Kalyan  Sahai  (1536 — 1573 
A.D.)  who  went  to  Dellii.  A  large  proportion  of  the  Clihattis- 
garhi  Brfilimans  are  landowners  and  tenants;  others  are  land 
and  legal  agents,  priests,  village  astrologers  and  mendicants. 
6^.  The  Telis  constitute  8  per  cent,  of  the  population 
but    have    only    about    70    villages   in 

Teli  and    Rawat. 

Bilaspur.  The  most  numerous  sub- 
castes  are  the  Jhirias  or  Jharias,  the  jungly  Telis,  and  the 
Ekbahinyas  who  wear  glass  bangles  only  on  the  right  hand, 
those  on  the  left  being  of  metal.  This  is  a  custom  of  several 
castes  and  the  reason  no  doubt  is  that  the  women  engage  in 
some  occupation  which  would  make  it  inconvenient  to  have 
glass  bangles  on  both  hands.  The  Madpotwd  Telis  are  a  small 
subdivision  living  near  the  hills,  who  in  former  days  used  to 
distill  intoxicants.  They  keep  pigs  and  poultry,  which  the 
other  Telis  will  not  do.  When  the  Teli  first  places  the 
post  of  hi3_§-/z^;/// or  oil-press  in  the  ground  he  buries  beneath 
it  five  pieces   of  turmeric,  some  cowries  and  an  areca  nut. 


,V^  BILASPUR.       lT)I'i;i.ATION. 

The  Tcli's  oil-press  is  always  turned  from  right  to  left,  as  is 
the  case  with   hand-mills  of  all  kinds  among  the  Hindus. 

The  Rfiwats  or  caltle-herds  constitute  about  9  per  cent, 
of  the  population,  but  have  only  1 1  villages.  Besides  grazing 
cattle  they  act  as  household  servants,  and  are  the  only  caste 
Uom  wliom  all  others,  including  Brahmans,  will  take  water 
to  drink.  Some  of  the  lower  subcastes  keep  pigs  and  will 
take  food  from  Gonds. 

64.  The  Kurmis  constitute  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion and  hold  nearly  160  villages.     The 
Kurmi.  ....  r^      1  -  j 

principal     subcastes     are     Desha    and 

Chandnahu.  The  Desha  Kurmis  belong  mostly  to  the 
•Mungeli  tahsil.  They  will  not  keep  fowls  as  the  other 
Kurmis  do,  and  try  to  avoid  living  in  villages  where  poultry 
is  reared.  They  will  not  clean  cotton  and  their  women  arc 
forbidden  to  wearnose-rings.  A  Desha  Kurmi  is  prohibited 
from  marrying  two  wives  who  are  sisters.  He  may 
not  sell  shoes,  and  consequently  if  he  gets  a  pair  which  are 
too  small  for  him,  he  cannot  dispose  of  them  for  money  and 
is  reduced  to  making  a  gift  of  tlicni  to  some  poor  Brahman  in 
order  at  any  rate  to  obtain  some  accretion  of  spiritual  merit. 
1  he  whole  subcaste  belongs  to  a  Kashi  gotra,  the  same  being 
probably  derived  from  Kasyap  or  tortoise.  The  Chandnahu 
Kurmis  are  largely  found  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil  and  are  very 
industrious  and  capable  cultivators,  and  therefore  usually 
prosperous.  They  are  however  generally  reputed  to  be 
stingy  and  are  not  very  popular.  They  derive  the  name  of 
Chandnahu  from  Chandra  the  moon,  and  are  divided  into  the 
ICkbahinyas  and  Dobahinyas,  or  those  who  wear  glass 
bangles  on  one  or  both  arms  respectively.  There  is  also  an 
inferior  group  known  as  Fataria,  who  are  generally  despised 
because  they  grow  hemp  and  will  take  their  food  in  the  fields 
in  fall  IS  or  leaf-plates. 

65.  The  Bairagis  and  Gosains  are  two  castes  of  ascetics, 
_  .  .  .      , ,,  the    devotees    rcspectivelv   of   Vishnu 

oair.igi  ai'.d  Oosnin.  ^ 

and    Siva.     There    are    about    10,000 


CASTE.  85 

persons  of  this  class  in  the  District,  but  they  have  fallen 
away  from  the  ideas  of  self-sacrifice  and  poverty  in  which  tlie 
orders  originated  and  hold  proprietary  rights  in  a  consider- 
able number  of  villages.  The  tahutdar  family  of  the  Lormi 
estate,  comprising  about  100  villages,  are  Bairagis,  and  tliere 
are  two  or  three  other  prominent  moneylenders.  In  Raipur 
several  Gosain  families  hold  considerable  estates.  It  is  pro- 
bable tiiat  the  founders  of  such  properties  were  the  Mahants 
or  priests  of  temples  enjoying  a  large  local  popularity  and  a 
corresponding  income  from  the  pious  gifts  of  the  faithful. 
After  the  maintenance  of  the  temple  had  been  provided  for 
the  balance  would  go  to  the  Mahant,  who  by  laying  it  out  in 
land  or  setting  up  as  a  moneylender  would  accumulate 
an  estate,  and  become  a  landed  proprietor,  relinquishing  the 
performances  of  his  office  at  the  temple  or  employing  a  sub- 
stitute. Besides  the  estates  in  Raipur  and  Bilaspur,  the 
Feudator}'  States  of  Nandgaon  and  Chhuikhadan  belong  to 
Hairagi  families  and  were  obtained  in  the  same  manner. 
According  to  the  rule  of  the  caste  the  Bairagi  being  celibate 
should  select  a  cluld  or  disciple,  on  wliom  the  property 
would  devolve  in  the  same  manner  as  the  priesthood  of  a 
temple.  But  in  the  important  families  the  practice  of  celibacy 
has  been  abandoned  and  the  men  marry  and  have  families 
in  the  ordinar}^  manner.  Mr.  Chisholm  remarked  of  this 
class  : — '  Strictly  speaking  they  should  not  marry  and  are 
'  expected  to  remain  models  of  manl}'  purity  like  the  knights 
'  and  monks  of  the  middle  ages.  In  point  of  fact,  however, 
'while  maintaining  the  letter  of  the  law,  especially  in  all 
'cases  where  the  inheritance  of  property'  is  involved,  they 
'utterly  ignore  its  spirit  and  their  monasteries  are  too  often 
'dens  of  wickedness.'  In  this  respect  their  condition  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  monasteries  of  Europe  during 
considerable  periods  of  their  history.  Both  the  orders,  and 
especially  the  Gosains  or  followers  of  the  sterner  Sivite  creed, 
have  at  times  taken  up  the  profession  of  arms  like  the 
crusading  monks,  and  engaged  primarily  in  religious  causes  ; 


H6  IMLASPUU.       POPULATION. 

tlicy  have  on  occasion  turned  ilicir  \vca|)ons  to  secular  com- 
bats. Tlic  Naga  Gosains  were  a  well-known  band  of  fighters 
who  wont  about  nearly  naked,  having  notlmig  but  a  skin 
round  their  loins.  It  is  stated  ihat  ihcy  quelled  a  rebellion 
of  the  Kaja  of  Bastar  on  behalf  of  the  iVIarathas,  for  which 
grants  of  land  were  given  to  their  leaders  in  Raipur. 

66.    The  Gonds  constitute  14  per  cent,  of  the  population, 

but    outside   the    important    zainlndari 

estate     of    Pandaria  and    the    smaller 

one  of  Kanteli,  whicli  belong   to  Kaj-Gond  proprietors,    ilicy 

have  only  3  1  villages. 

.\  more  detailed  description  of  the  Brahmans,  Rawats, 
Kunnis,  Tclis,  and  Gonds  lias  been  given  in  the  Raipur  Dis- 
trict Volume,  and  what  lias  been  said  of  tliem  there  applies 
almost  equally  to  Bilaspur.  Besides  the  Kavvars  and  Gonds 
ihe  District  has  several  forest  tribes  found  in  comparatively 
small  numbers  as  the  Bhainas,  Sawaras  and  Dhanwars,  and 
it  is  proposed  to  attempt  some  notice  of  these.  The  Satnanii 
sect  has  been  fully  treated  in  the  Raipur  Volume,  and  this  is 
practically  equivalent  to  describing  the  Chamars,  but  some 
information  on  their  marriage  and  other  customs  remains 
for  inseriion  here.  Some  mention  must  also  be  made  of 
the  Pankas  or  Gandas. 

6j.  The  Kawars  are  a  fairly  important  tribe  residing  in 
the  hilly  tracts  to  the  north  and  east,  and 

Kawar. 

numbering  about  37,000  persons  or 
4  per  cent,  of  the  population.  All  the  zamindars  except  those 
of  I'andariaand  Kanteli  belong  to  this  tribe.  The  name  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  ancestors  of  the  tribe  fought 
on  the  side  of  the  Kauravas  against  the  Pandavas  in  the  great 
battle  of  Haslinapur.  But  the  zamindars  call  themselves  Tawar 
instead  of  Kawar  and  say  that  they  arc  descended  from  Tuar 
Kajputs.  They  wear  the  sacred  thread  but  have  not  yet  in- 
duced Brahmans  to  take  water  from  them.  The  tribe  has  eight 
subdivisions  of  which  the  KamalbansI,  Paikara  and  Dodh- 
Kawars  are  considered  to  rank  above  the   Rathia,  Chanti, 


CASTE.  87 

Cherwa  and  Rautia  groups.  The  eiglith  subtribe  is  that  of 
t!ie  zaniladars  and  is  known  as  Tanvvar  or  Umrao,  Tlie 
Paikaras  derive  their  name  from  Paik  a  foot-soldier,  and  no 
doubt  formerly  followed  this  occupation.  They  still  wor- 
ship a  two-edged  sword,  known  as  '  Jbagra  Khand/  on  the 
day  of  Dasahra.  The  Kamalbansi,  or  stock  of  the  lotus, 
may  be  so  called  as  being  the  oldest  subdivision;  according 
to  the  belief  that  Brahma,  the  creator  of  the  world,  was 
liimself  boi'n  from  a  lotus.  The  Chanti,  who  derive  their 
name  from  the  ant,  are  considered  to  be  the  lowest  group 
as  that  insect  is  the  most  insignificant  of  living  things.  The 
r<autia  are  probably  the  descendants  of  Kawar  fathers  and 
mothers  of  the  Rawat  caste.  Even  now  if  a  Kawar  marries 
a  Rawat  girl,  she  will  be  admitted  into  the  tribe  and  her 
children  will  become  full  Kawars.  Similarly  the  Rawats 
have  a  Kaunria  subcaste,  who  may  also  be  the  offspring  of 
mixed  marriages,  and  a  Kawar  girl  if  seduced  by  a  Kaunria 
Rawat  is  not  expelled  from  her  own  community,  as  she 
would  be  for  a  liaison  with  any  other  man  outside  the  tribe. 
The  Cherwas  are  probably  another  hybrid  group  descended 
from  Cheros  and  Kawars.  The  meaning  of  the  name 
Dudh  or  milk  Kawar  is  not  clear.  The  Kawars  have 
totemistic  septs  and  in  the  Paikara  subtribe  a  figure  of  the 
plant  or  animal  after  which  the  sept  is  named  is  made  by 
each  party  at  the  time  of  marriage.  Thus  a  bridegroom  of 
the  Bagh  or  tiger  sept  prepares  a  small  image  of  a  tiger  with 
flour  and  bakes  it  in  oil ;  this  he  shows  to  the  bride's  family 
while  she  on  her  part,  assuming  that  she  is,  say,  of  the  Bilwa 
or  cat  sept,  will  bring  a  similar  image  of  a  cat  with  her  in 
proof  of  her  origin.  Marriage  is  usually  adult  and  a  bride- 
price  is  paid,  partly  in  cash  and  partly  in  kind,  which 
amounts  on  an  average  to  Rs.  25.  Contrary  to  the  ordinary 
Hindu  rule  it  is  always  the  boy's  father  who  proposes  a  union 
and  the  girl's  father  would  think  it  derogatory  to  try  and  find 
a  husband  for  his  daughter.  The  Kawar  says  '  Shall  my 
daughter  leap  over  the  wall   to  find  a  husband?  '     In    conse- 


88  nii.AspuR.      ropui.ATioN. 

quciicc  of  this  girls  not  infrequently  remain  unmarried  until 
a  comparatively  late  age,  especially  in  the  zamindari- families, 
where  the  provision  of  a  husband  of  suitable  rank  may 
be  difficult.  The  practice  which  obtains  of  exchanging 
girls  between  two  families  is  known  as  ^//;;;Yrt(,'«/,  and  that 
by  which  the  expectant  bridegroom  sometimes  serves  for 
liis  wife  1X9,  gluvjian.  After  tlie  wedding  the  couple  go  to  a 
tank  to  batiie  and  each  pours  five  pots  full  of  water  over 
the  other.  On  their  return  the  bridegroom  shoots  arrows 
at  seven  straw  images  of  deer  over  his  wife's  shoulder  and 
after  each  shot  she  puts  a  little  sugar  in  his  mouth.  Widow- 
marriage  is  permiited  except  among  the  zamlndars'  sub- 
caste.  The  tribe  bury  their  dead  as  a  general  rule.  The 
bodies  of  men  dying  of  small-pox  m.ust  never  be  burnt 
because  that  would  be  equivalent  to  destroying  the  goddess, 
incarnate  in  the  body.  The  corpses  of  cholera  patients  are 
buried,  and  sometimes  dug  up  subsequently  within  a  period 
of  six  months  and  burnt.  In  such  a  case  they  spread  a 
layer  of  unhusked  rice  in  the  grave  and  address  a  prayer  to 
the  earth-goddess,  stating  that  the  body  has  been  placed 
with  her  on  deposit,  and  asking  that  she  will  give  it  back 
intact  when  they  call  upon  her  for  it.  They  believe  that  in 
such  cases  the  process  of  decomposition  is  arrested  for  six 
months.  On  ordinary  occasions  they  place  in  the  grave  a 
little  til,  cotton,  urad,  and  unhusked  rice,  to  serve  as  seed 
grain  for  the  dead  man's  cultivation  in  the  other  world. 
They  also  put  a  plate,  a  brass  vessel  and  a  cooking  pot  on 
the  grave,  but  these  are  taken  by  the  Dhobior  washerman. 
When  a  man  is  killed  by  a  tiger  they  have  a  ceremony 
called  '  Breaking  the  string,'  or  the  connection  which  they 
believe  the  animal  establishes  with  a  family  on  having 
tasted  its  blood.  Otherwise  they  believe  that  the  tiger  would 
gradually  kill  olT  all  the  other  members  of  the  same  family, 
and  when  he  has  finished  with  them  would  proceed  to  other 
families  in  the  same  village.  The  belief  no  doubt  arises 
from  the  tiger's  habit  of  frequenting  the  locality   of  a  village 


CASTE.  89 

from  which  it  ha=?  once  obtained  a  victim,  in  the  natural 
expectation  that  others  may  be  forthcoming  from  the  same 
source.  In  this  ceremony  the  village  Baiga  is  painted  with 
red  ochre  and  soot  to  represent  the  tiger  and  proceeds  to 
the  place  where  the  victim  was  carried  off.  Having  picked 
up  some  of  the  blood-stained  earth  in  his  mouth  he  tries  to 
run  away  to  -the  jungle  but  the  spectators  hold  him  back 
until  he  spits  out  the  earth.  This  represents  the  tiger  being 
forced  to  give  up  his  victim.  The  Baiga  then  ties  a  string 
round  all  the  members  of  the  dead  man's  family  and  sacri- 
fices a  fowl ;  he  then  breaks  the  string  and  the  tiger's  connec- 
tion with  his  victim's  family  is  considered  to  be  severed. 
The  Kawars  of  the  wilder  tracts  believe  in  the  universal 
prevalence  of  spirits.  They  consider  even  that  ever\'  article 
of  household  furniture  is  tenanted  by  a  spirit  and  that  if 
anyone  steals  or  injures  it  without  the  owner's  leave  the 
spirit  will  bring  some  misfortune  on  him  in  revenge.  Theft 
is  said  to  be  unknown  among  them,  parti}'  on  this  account 
and  partly  because  few  of  them  have  any  property  worth 
stealing  The  Kawars  have  no  language  of  their  own  but 
speak  a  corrupt  form  of  Chhattlsgarhi.  Many  of  them  are 
thekeddrs  or  farmers  of  the  poor  villages  in  the  zamlndari 
estates,  and  others  are  cultivators  and  labourers.  Only  those 
of  the  Rautia  subcaste  weave  twine  and  ropes  and  make 
sleeping  cots.  The  Kawars  are  considered  by  the  Hindus  as 
exactly  on  a  level  with,  and  almost  indistinguishable  from,  the 
Gonds.  They  are  said  to  be  very  slow  in  making  up  their 
minds,  and  a  saying  about  them  is  : — '  The  Ganda's /»a;;c/f<7>'a^ 

*  (caste   committee)  always  ends  in    a    quarrel ;    the   Gond's 

*  panclidyat  cdive?,  only  for  the  feast ;  and  the  Ka.wa.r^s  panchdyat 
'  takes  a  year  to  arrive  at  a  decision.'  But  when  the  Kawars 
have  decided  they  act  with  vigour. 

68.  The  Dhanwars  or  Dhanuhars  number  about  7000 
persons  and  hve  in  the  wildest  zamin- 

Dhanvvar. 

dari  jungles.    They  are  one  of  the  most 
primitive    tribes   and   up  till  recently  have  lived  by  hunting 

N 


no  P.II.ASPUR.       POPULATION. 

and  collecting  forest  roots  and  fruits.  They  derive  their 
name  from  (Utauu  or  bow  ;  they  freely  admit  Kawar  women 
into  the  tribe  and  will  take  cooked  food  from  them.  It  is 
possible  therefore  that  they  are  an  offshoot  of  the  more 
important  Kawar  tribe.  Many  of  them  have  now  become 
farm-servants  and  labourers  and  they  also  make  bamboo  mat- 
ting and  (^/in/i^'is  or  enormous  baskets  for  holding  grain.  They 
will  not  make  small  baskets  and  fans  because  this  is  the 
occupation  of  the  Turis,  a  caste  whom  they  look  down  on. 
The  Dhanwars  say  that  their  ancestors  were  a  pair  called 
Naga  Lodhfi  and  Nagi  Lodhi,  who  were  dug  out  from  the 
ground  by  a  tigress  when  pawing  up  the  earth  in  her  den.  The 
word  /o(f/id  means  a  wild  dog  in  Chhattlsgarhl,  and  it  would 
thus  appear  that  the  Dhanwars  believe  themselves  to  be  des- 
cended from  the  wild  animals  of  the  forest.  The  tribe  have  no 
subdivisions  but  are  split  up  into  the  usual  exogamous  septs, 
which  in  their  case  are  totemistic,  or  named  after  animals 
and  plants.  One  of  the  septs  is  called  Manakhia  or  '  an  eater 
of  men' and  may  indicate  that  cannibalistic  practices  formerly 
existed  in  the  tribe.  At  their  weddings  they  kill  a  goat  and 
make  the  bride  and  bridegroom  walk  over  its  body,  treading  in 
its  blood.  They  bury  the  dead  and  first  carry  the  corpse  seven 
times  round  the  open  grave  saying  '  This  is  your  last  marriage' 
(with  the  earth).  When  an  elder  of  the  family  dies  they  usually 
abandon  their  hut  in  the  belief  that  it  will  be  haunted  by  his 
spirit.  A  man  killed  by  a  tiger  becomes  a  Bag/tin  Masdn  or  tiger 
imp  and  a  woman  who  dies  during  pregnancy  a  Chiirel,  both 
these  kinds  of  spirits  being  very  troublesome  to  the  living,  and 
only  to  be  laid  by  an  efficient  Giaiia  or  sorcerer.  The  head- 
man of  the  village  officiates  as  the  caste  priest.  Formerly 
the  tribe  had  a  class  of  bigger  priests  known  as  Parganiha. 
Hut  on  one  occasion  when  a  rich  Dhanwar  had  just  married  a 
pretty  young  wife,  in   the  joy  of  his  heart  he  made  a  vow 

that  he  would  give  the  Parganiha  whatever  he  should  demand. 

Ihe  priest  asked  for  the  young  bride  and  the  Dhanwar  in 
consequence  of  his  vow  was  forced  to  surrender  her,  but  this 


CASTE.  91 

incident  led  to  the  abolition  of  the  class  of  Parganihas.  The 
Dhanwars  usually  live  outside  the  village  and  owing  to  their 
more  primitive  habits  rank  lower  than  the  Gonds  and  Kawars. 

69.  The  Bhainas  are  a  small  tribe  numbering  about  6000 

persons  and  probably  of  mixed  origin. 

Bliaina. 

They  may  be  an  oftshoot  trom  the 
Baiga  tribe  mingled  with  the  Kawars  and  Gonds.  There  is 
a  tradition  that  they  were  formerly  the  rulers  of  this  locality 
and  were  ousted  by  the  Kawars ;  and  several  of  the  old  forts 
found  in  the  Bilaspur  District  are  ascribed  to  them,  especially 
that  of  Bilaigarh  now  included  in  Raipur.  The  Bhainas  will 
take  food  from  the  Kawar  tribe  and  admit  them  into  their 
community;  while  the  Kawars  at  all  their  ceremonial  feasts, 
at  weddings,  funerals  and  on  other  occasions  must  feed  a 
Bhaina  before  they  eat  themselves.  This  custom  may  perhaps 
be  explained  as  a  recognition  that  they  have  supplanted  the 
Bhainas  in  the  possession  of  the  land.  Several  of  the  family 
or  clan  names  of  the  Bhainas  are  taken  from  those  of  other 
tribes  and  castes,  and  the  members  of  such  clans  show  respect 
to  the  caste  after  which  they  are  named,  and  avoid  any  occa- 
sion of  quarrelling  with  them.  Those  whose  septs  are  named 
after  some  natural  object  are  tattooed  with  a  representation  of 
it.  Like  so  many  other  castes  in  Chhattlsgarh  the  Bhainas 
have  the  two  divisions  of  Uriya  and  Laria.  The  term  Laria 
is  applied  to  the  residents  of  a  border  tract  between  Chhattls- 
garh proper  and  the  Uriya  country,  whose  speech  differs 
somewhat  from  ordinary  Chhattlsgarhi.  When  the  date  of 
a  Bhaina  wedding  has  been  fixed  each  party  takes  a  rope 
and  ties  as  many  knots  in  it  as  there  are  days  to  the  wed- 
ding ;  one  knot  is  then  untied  daily  in  order  to  keep  count  of 
the  date.  The  Bhainas  like  the  Binjhwars  have  an  arrow 
for  their  badge,  which  is  used  as  a  sign-manual  and  mark  of 
ownership. 

70.  The   Sawaras  or   Saonrs  are   a  historical  tribe  who 

Sawara  ^^^   ^^^^   '°  ^^^^  given   their  name  to 

the  Suarmar  zamindari  and  perhaps  to 


gi  BILASPUR.      POPULATION. 

Seorinarayan.  They  arc  mentioned  in  old  Sanskrit  litera- 
ture and  have  been  identified  with  the  Suari  of  Pliny  and 
the  Sabari  of  Ptolemy.  According  to  the  local  legend  the 
lirst  ancestor  of  the  tribe  was  an  old  Bhil  hermit  named 
Sawar  who  lived  in  Kharod  two  miles  from  Seorinarayan. 
The  god  Jagannath  had  at  this  time  appeared  in  Seori- 
narayan and  the  old  Sawar  used  to  worship  him,  being  the 
only  person  who  knew  where  the  god  dwelt.  The  king  of 
Orissa  had  built  the  great  temple  at  Furl  and  wished  to 
instal  Jagannath  in  it,  so  he  sent  a  Brahman  to  fetch  him 
from  Seorinarayan.  But  nobody  could  bring  him  to  the 
god  except  the  old  hermit  Sawar.  The  Brahman  long 
besought  him  in  vain  to  be  allowed  to  see  the  god  and  even 
went  so  far  as  to  marry  his  daughter,  and  finally  the  old  man 
consented  to  take  him  blind-fold  to  the  place.  The  Brahman 
however  tied  some  mustard  seeds  in  a  corner  of  his  cloth  and 
made  a  hole  in  it  so  that  they  dropped  out  one  by  one  on  the 
way.  When  the  mustard  grew  up  he  again  found  his  way  to 
the  god  and  begged  him  to  go  to  Puri.  Jagannath  consented 
and  floated  down  the  Mahanadi  in  the  form  of  the  log  of 
wood,  which  was  afterwards  partly  carved  into  his  image  and 
is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  temple  of  Puri.  But  as  a  reward  to 
the  old  hermit  Sawar  for  his  devotion  he  ordained  that  the 
place  of  his  abode  should  bear  their  names  conjoined  and 
accordingly  it  has  since  been  called  Seorinarayan.  It  is 
noticeable  that  according  to  this  story  the  tribe  consider  that 
their  first  ancestor  was  a  Bhil.  The  Sawaras  have  two  main 
subdivisions  in  Bilaspur,  Laria  or  Chhattisgarhi  and  Uriya. 
The  Uriya  branch  say  that  they  are  divided  into  80  barags  or 
exogamous  septs  and  each  of  these  is  further  split  up  into 
two  branches  named  Khuntia  and  Joria.  The  Khuntia  are 
tliose  who  bury  or  burn  their  dead  near  a  klifmt  or  stump  of 
an  old  tree,  and  the  Jorias  those  who  dispose  of  them  near  a 
joy  or  brook.  Adult  marriage  is  usual  but  the  Joria  Sawaras 
consider  it  a  great  sin  to  have  a  girl  unmarried  after  she  is 
mature.     If  therefore  no  match    can  be  arranged  for  her  they 


CASTE.  93 

make  her  go  through  the  ceremony  with  a  tree  or  an  old  man, 
and  afterwards  dispose  of  her  as  a  widow  to  any  man  who 
wants  her,  whether  married  or  otherwise.  The  Sawaras  are 
great  sorcerers  and  their  charms,  known  as  Sabari  Mantra, 
are  considered  to  be  very  efficacious  in  appeasing  the  spirits 
of  persons  who  have  died  a  violent  death. 

/r.  The   Chamars  number  about   20    per   cent,  of  the 
population  of  the    District,  and  own  8i 

Chamar. 

villages.    Their  physical  appearance  and 
stature   are  often  of  a  noticeably  fine  order  and  some  of  the 
Chamars  are  fairer  than  Brahmans.     It  is  on  record  that  on 
one  occasion  a    European  officer  mistook  a  Chamar  for  a 
Eurasian  and   addressed  him  in  English.     Curiously  enough 
the  same  feature  has  been  observed  in  the  Punjab,  where  Sir 
D.  Ibbetson  remarked  that  the  women   were  celebrated  for 
their  beauty  and  loss  of  caste  was  often  to  be  attributed  to 
too   great   a   partiaUty    for  a  Chamarin.     In  Chhattlsgarh  a 
permanent  feud  exists  between  the  Chamars  and  Hindus  and 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  Satnami  movement  is  principally 
an  expression  of  this  in  the  form  of  a  religious  revolt  against 
the  tyranny    of   Brahmanism    and    the    caste   system.     The 
majority  of  the  Chhattlsgarhi  Chamars  are  cultivators  and  it 
is  this  class  who  are  the  principal   supporters  of  the  Satnami 
reformation.     Those  who  still  use   hides  and  work  in  leather 
belong  either    to    the    Kanaujia    or    Ahirwar  subcastes,    the 
former  of  whom  take  their  name  from  the  well-known  classical 
town  of  Kanauj   in  Northern    India,    while    the   latter    are 
said  to  be  the  descendants  of  unions  between  Chamar  fathers 
and    Ahir    mothers.     But    the    Chamars    who  follow  their 
hereditary    calling    are    sometimes    known    as     Paikaha,    as 
opposed  to  the  Satnamis  who  have    generally  eschewed  it. 
Those  who  cure  skins    have    usually    the    right    to  receive 
tlie  hides  of  the  village  cattle  in  return   for   removing  the 
carcases,  each  family  of   Chamars  having    allotted  to  them  a 
certain  number,  of  tenants,  whose  dead  cattle  they  take,  while 
their    women    are  tlie   hereditary    midwives  of   the  village. 


gA  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

Such  Chamars  have  the  designation  of  Meher.  The  Kanaujias 
make  shoes  out  of  a  single  piece  of  leather  while  the  Ahirwars 
cut  the  front  separately.  The  latter  also  ornament  their 
bhocs  with  fancy  work  consisting  of  patterns  of  silver  thread 
on  red  cloth.  No  Ahirwar  girl  is  married  until  she  has  shown 
herself  prohcient  in  this  kind  of  needle-work. 

72.  The  Chamars  have  both  infant  and  adult  marriage. 
Like  other  castes  in  Chhattlsgarh  they 
have  two  forms  known  as  the  bar z  and 
chhoti  sliadi  or  large  and  small  marriage ;  the  former  is 
performed  at  the  bride's  house  and  entails  the  full  ceremony, 
while  those  who  cannot  afford  this  have  it  at  the  bridegroom's 
house,  when  the  rejoicings  are  curtailed  and  the  expense 
decreased.  A  price  is  usually  paid  for  the  bride  and  varies 
from  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  rupees  in  proportion  to 
her  attractions.  An  instance  is  known  of  six  hundred 
rupees  having  been  given  for  a  wife.  The  marriage 
ceremony  follows  the  standard  type  prevalent  in  the  locality. 
On  his  journey  to  the  girl's  house  the  boy  rides  on  a 
bullock  and  is  wrapped  up  in  a  blanket.  When  the  proces- 
sion arrives  at  the  bride's  village  a  kind  of  sham  fight  takes 
place  which  is  thus  described  by  the  Rev.  E.  M.  Gordon  of 
Mungeli  :* — '  As  the  bridegroom's  party  approached  the  house 
'  of  the  bride,  the  boy's  friends  lifted  him  up  on  their  shoul- 
'  dcrs,  and  surrounding  him  on  every  side  they  advanced, 
'  swinging  their  sticks   in  a  threatening  manner.     As  they 

*  neared  the  house  they  crossed  sticks  with  the  bride's  friends, 
'  who  gradually  fell  back  and  allowed  the  bridegroom's  friends 
'  to  proceed  in  their  direction.  The  women  of  the  house 
'  gathered  with  the  baskets  and  fans  and  some  threw  about 
'  rice  in  pretence  of  self-defence.     When   the  sticks  of  the 

*  bridegrooms  party  struck  the  roof  of  the  bride's  house  or  of 
'  the  marriage  shed  her  friends  considered  themselves  defeated 

»  From   an  article  contributed  to  the    J. A. SB.    See   also  Indian  Folk 
Tales  (London,  Klliot,  Stock   1908). 


I 


CASTE.  95 

'  and  the  sham  fight  was  at  an  end.'  Widows  commonly 
remarry  and  may  take  for  a  second  husband  any  one  they 
please  except  their  first  husband's  elder  brother  and  ascend- 
ant relations.  Widows  are  either  known  as  barandi  or 
randi,  the  randl  being  a  widow  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
term  and  the  bcirandl  a  girl  who  has  been  married  but  has 
not  lived  with  her  husband  Such  a  girl  is  not  required 
to  break  her  bangles  on  her  husband's  death,  and  being  natur- 
ally more  in  demand  as  a  second  wife  her  father  obtains  a 
good  price  for  her.  When  a  widow  marries  a  second  time 
her  first  husband's  property  remains  with  his  family  and 
also  his  children,  unless  they  are  very  young,  when  the 
mother  may  keep  them  for  a  few  years  and  subsequently  send 
them  back  to  their  father's  relatives.  Divorce  is  permitted 
for  a  variety  of  causes  and  is  usually  effected  in  the  presence 
of  the  caste  panchayat  or  committee  by  the  husband  and  wife 
breaking  a  straw  as  a  symbol  of  the  rupture  of  union.  Mar- 
riage ties  are  generally  of  the  loosest  description  and  bigamy 
and  adultery  are  scarcely  recognised  as  offences. 

y2)-  The  caste  usually  bury  the  dead  with  the  feet  to  the 

north  like  the  Gonds  and  other  abori- 
beliefs"'    ^"'^  '■«l''g*°"^     ginal  tribes.     They  say  that  heaven  is 

situated  towards  the  north  and  dead 
men  should  be  placed  in  a  position  to  start  for  that  direction. 
Before  burying  a  corpse  they  often  make  a  mark  on  the  body 
with  butter,  oil  or  soot,  and  when  a  child  is  subsequently 
born  into  the  same  family,  they  look  for  any  kind  of  mark  on 
the  corresponding  place  on  its  body.  If  any  such  be  found 
they  consider  the  child  as  a  reincarnation  of  the  deceased 
person.  Still-born  children  and  those  who  die  before  the 
c/r/m/f  J  or  sixth  day  ceremony  of  purification  are  not  taken 
to  the  burial  ground,  but  their  bodies  are  placed  in  an  earthen 
pot  and  buried  below  the  doorway  or  in  the  courtyard  of  the 
house.  In  such  cases  no  funeral  feast  is  exacted  and  some 
people  believe  that  the  custom  tends  in  favour  of  the  mother 
bearing  another  child.     Others  say  however  that  ,its  object  is 


gd  BILASPUR.       mPULATION, 

to  prevent  the  tou/ilor  witch  from  getting  hold  of  the  hody 
of  the  child,  and  raising  its  spirit  to  life  to  do  her  bidding  as 
Matia  Uco.'  Mr.  Gordon  states  that  it  is  impossible  to  form 
a  clear  conception  of  the  beliefs  of  the  village  people  as  to  the 
hereafter.^  '  That  they  have  the  idea  of  hell  as  a  place  of  pun- 
'  ishnicnt  may  be  gathered    from  the  belief  that    if  salt  is  spilt 

•  the  one  who  does  this  will  in  fidldl  or  the  infernal  region 
'  have  to  gather  up  each  grain  of  salt  with  his  eyelids.  Salt 
'  is  for  this  reason  handed  round  with  great  care  and  it  is  con- 
'dered  unlucky  to  receive  it  in  the  palm  of  the  hand;  it  is 
'  therefore  invariably  taken  in  a  cloth  or  in  a  vessel.  There 
'  is  a  belief  that  the  spirit  of  the  deceased  hovers  round  fami- 
Miar  scenes  and  places,  and  on  this  account  whenever  it  is 
'  possible,  it  is  customary  to  destroy  or  to  desert  the  house  in 
'  which  any  one  has  died.  If  a  house  is  deserted  the  custom 
'  is  to  sweep  and  plaster  the  place,  and  then,  after  lighting 
'  a   lamp,  to  leave    it   in  the  house  and  withdraw  altogether. 

•  After  the  spirit  of  the  dead  has  wandered  around  restlessly 

*  for  a  certain  time,  it  is  said  that  it  will  again  become 
'  incarnate  and  take  the  form  of   man  or  of  one  of  the    lower 

*  animals.' 

74.  The  Pankasform  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
The  caste  appears  to  be  an  offshoot 
from  the  impure  Ganda  caste  of  weav- 
ers and  village  watchmen  and  to  consist  of  those  Gandas 
who  have  become  members  of  the  Kablrpanthi  sect.  A  sa}'- 
ing  current  about  them  is  '  the  Panka  {panl-ka)  is  born  of 
water,  and  his  body  is  made  of  drops  of  water ;  but  there 
were  Pankas  before  Kablr.'  The  derivation,  which  is  of 
course  fanciful,  appears  to  refer  to  the  story  of  Kablr  having 
been  found  as  a  baby  floating  in  a  lotus-leaf  on  a  tank.  The 
saying  may  be  supposed  to  indicate  obscurely  that  prior  to 
the  rise  of  Kablr  the  Pankas  were  Hindus  of  low  caste.  The 
Pankas  have,  at  least  in  theory,  abjured    the    consumption  of 

»   From  Mr.   Gordcn's  paper.     See  Indian  Folk  TalP!=,  pages  49,  50. 
a  Ibidtm, 


CASTE.  97 

flesh  and  liquor,  and  therefore  they  rank  somewhat  liigher 
than  the  Gandas.  The  bulk  of  them  are  now  cultivators 
and  labourers.  Many  also  serve  as  village  watchmen  and 
in  this  case  the  name  of  Ganda  is  applied  to  them  as  a  pro- 
fessional term.  The  Gandas  proper  are  distinctively  known 
as  Bajgaria,  because  they  are  regularly  employed  as  village 
musicians,  the  name  having  this  significalion.  The  Pankas 
will  admit  members  of  all  except  the  impure  castes  into  the 
community.  The  proselyte  is  shaved,  and  the  other  Pankas 
wash  their  feet  and  let  the  water  drip  on  to  his  head  as  a 
means  of  purification.  He  then  takes  a  stick  and  breaks  it 
across  as  a  symbol  of  his  renunciation  of  his  former  caste. 
The  kantlil  or  necklace  of  tnlsl  beads  is  placed  about  his 
neck  and  some  texts  are  whispered  into  his  ear. 

75    The    Ghasias  are    a  low  caste  of  grooms  and  grass- 
cutters    being   known    alternatively  as 
Ghasia. 

Thanwar      They     also     sell     baskets, 

winnowing  fans,  bamboo  combs  and  marbles.  The  Laria 
or  Chhattisgarhl  Ghasias  are  the  highest  subdivision. 
Other  groups  are  the  Uriyl  Ghasias,  who  do  the  work  of 
sweepers,  the  Dingkuthia  who,  as  their  name  implies,  castrate 
bullocks  and  buffaloes,  the  Mandarchawa  who  are  employed 
in  making  drums,  and  the  Dolbaha  Ghasias  who  are  f^dlki 
bearers,  the  word  dold  signifying  a  litter  in  Chhattisgarhl. 
The  women  are  commonly  employed  as  midwives.  The  Gha- 
sias are  an  impure  caste  and  the  Rawats  will  not  wash  their 
plates  for  them.  They  are  much  addicted  to  the  consump- 
tion of  liquor  and  of  intoxicating  drugs.  Their  household 
deity  is  Dulha  Deo,  whose  altar  is  always  found  near  the 
cooking-place.  The  Ghasias  entertain  a  great  aversion  for 
Kayastlis  and  account  for  it  in  the  following  manner  : — On 
one  occasion  the  son  of  the  Kayasth  minister  of  the  Raja  of 
Ratanpur  went  out  for  a  ride  followed  by  a  Ghasia  sais. 
The  boy  was  wearing  costly  ornaments,  and  the  Ghasia's 
cupidity  being  excited,  he  attacked  and  murdered  the  child, 
stripped    him  of  his  ornaments  and  threw    the    body  down  a 

o 


(^8  niLASPCR.       POI'ULATION. 

well.  The  nuirdcr  was  discovered  and  in  revenge  the 
minister  killed  every  Gliasia,  man,  woman  or  child  that  he 
could  lay  his  hands  on.  The  only  ones  who  escaped  were  two 
pregnant  women  wlio  took  refuge  in  the  hut  of  a  Ganda  and 
were  sheltered  by  him.  To  them  were  born  a  boy  and  a  girl 
and  the  present  Ghasias  are  descended  from  the  pair.  Tliere- 
forc  a  Ghasia  will  eat  even  the  leavings  of  a  Ganda,  but 
will  take  nothing  from  the  hands   of  a  Kayasth. 

76.  The  Chauhans  are  a  low  caste  of  village  watchmen, 
considered  to  be  the  descendants  of  the 
irregular  alliances  ol  Rajputs  with  kept 
women.  They  have  two  subdivisions,  Baghel  and  Dusadh.of 
whom  the  former  are  of  purer  descent  than  the  latter.  The 
Chauhans  profess  to  abstain  from  the  consumption  of  liquor, 
and  fowls,  pork  and  beef.  But  they  rank  low  in  the  social 
scale  and  have  a  bad  reputation  for  committing  thefts.  The 
Audhalias  are  another  low  caste,  who  are  held  to  be  the 
descendants  of  Daharia  Rfijputs  by  their  kept  women.  They 
are  impure  and  keep  pigs. 

SOCIAL  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

"jj.  Marriages  are  generally   arranged    in    ChhattJsgarh 
by  the   parents   of   the    parties    direct 

Marriage  cus-toms. 

and  not  by  intermediaries  such    as  the 

barber  and  the  Brahman.  Among  the  middle  and  lower 
classes  adult  marriage  largely  prevails,  but  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  make  the  age  earlier.  Proposals  for  a  betrothal 
are  always  made  by  the  father  of  the  boy  and  it  is  considered 
derogatory  for  a  man  to  try  and  arrange  a  marriage  for  liis 
dnughier  however  old  she  may  be ;  though  in  Hindustan 
this  latter  course  is  always  adopted.  The  betrothal  cere- 
mony always  takes  place  at  the  house  of  the  girl  and  consists 
.^n  the  presentation  to  her  of  a  small  cloth  and  some  cakes 
of  gram,  flour  and  sugar.  The  wedding  may  be  celebrated 
in  two  ways  known  as  hnrj  sliadi  and  clilwtj  shadi  or  a  great 
and  little  marringe  respectively.  For  the  former  marriage 
sheds    are    cccted   at    ihe  houses    both    of    the    bride    and 


/5fw;  ,.,v,',  r,'//<7.,   Derby. 

SCULPTURE    OF    MARRIAGE    OF    SIVA.    RATANPUR. 


SOCIAL    LIFE    AND    CUSTOMS.  99 

bridegiooin,  and  the  bridegroom  goes  to  the  bride's  village  with 
his  party  and  the  wedding  is  held  there.  A  small  marriage 
is  iield  at  the  bridegroom's  house  and  it  is  only  here  that 
the  shed  is  erected.  The  girl  comes  to  his  house  and  is 
married  there  and  the  expenditure  is  very  much  less.  This 
form  of  marriage  is  common  among  the  poorer  classes. 
The  deotald  or  worship  of  the  village  gods  is  an  essential 
part  of  all  weddings.  Tlie  women  of  the  caste  lake  rice 
and  turmeric  to  the  Baiga  or  village  priest  and  offer  them 
to  the  deities  which  he  keeps  in  his  house,  and  afterwards 
make  the  round  of  those  located  within  tlie  village  boundary. 
Another  ceremony  is  the  rdii  bhdji  or  night  meal  in  which 
the  younger  sister  of  the  bride  and  some  other  women  go 
to  the  bridegroom's  lodging  and  give  him  a  tooth-stick, 
water  for  washing  his  hands  and  feet,  and  some  food.  Before 
the  marriage  the  bride  and  bridegroom  measure  rice  with 
each  other,  probably  as  an  omen  that  it  mny  be  plentiful  in 
their  house ;  seven  little  heaps  of  rice  are  placed  on  the 
ground  in  the  shed  and  each  time  that  the  couple  go  round  the 
marriage  post  the  bridegroom  takes  the  right  foot  of  the 
bride  in  his  hand  and  makes  her  kick  one  of  the  heaps 
away.  Elsewhere  the  bride  takes  the  lead  in  walking  round 
tlie  marriage  post,  but  among  the  middle  and  lower  castes  of 
Chhattisgarh  the  bridegroom  goes  first.  Among  the  Bhainas 
during  the  first  six  rounds  that  the  bride  and  bridegroom 
make  round  the  post  they  put  their  feet  against  the  ground  as 
they  go,  but  on  the  seventh  round  they  walk  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  At  the  wedding  the  bridegroom  smears  vermilion 
on  the  parting  of  the  bride's  hair  from  the  forehead  up  to  the 
top  of  the  crown  and  puts  a  dot  on  the  root  of  her  nose. 
This  line  of  vermilion  is  the  mark  of  a  married  woman  as 
it  is  not  worn  by  girls  or  widows.  It  is  not  so  far  as  is 
known  regularly  used  in  this  manner  elsewhere  in  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces,  though  it  is  also  the  sign  of  a  married  woman 
in  Bengal.  But  the  fashion  is  now  on  the  decline  in  Chhat- 
tisgarh as  it  Is   believed  to  injure   the   growth  of  the  hair. 


100  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

When  the  bride  and  biidegroomrcach  thelatter's  liouse  after 
the  marriage,  they  arc  received  by  the  women  of  his  household 
at  the  door  of  the  bridegroom's  marriage  shed.  All  the 
unwidowcd  women  of  his  family  then  walk  round  the  newly- 
wedded  couple  seven  times  with  a  pestle  tied  with  green 
leaves,  and  after  this  make  another  seven  rounds  with  a 
churning  pot.  Among  the  Chhattlsgarhl  Marathas  the  bride 
and  bridegroom  chew  betel-leaves  after  the  marriage  cere- 
mony and  then  spit  them  out  at  each  other.  The  Sonkars 
sacrifice  a  goat  of  red  colour  at  the  marriage  post.  Among 
the  Pankas  all  the  male  guests  are  shaved  at  the  house  of 
the  bride  or  bridegroom  and  then  have  a  bath  in  the  court- 
yard. 

78.  Except  among  the  highest  castes  it  is  the  general 

practice  for  widows  to   remarry,  and  a 

Widow-marriage.  ...  ,  , 

Widow  IS  commonly  expected  to  marry 
her  late  husband's  younger  brother.  Failing  him  she  may 
marry  anybody  she  pleases,  and  in  such  cases  a  price  is  always 
paid  for  her  either  to  her  parents  or  to  the  relatives  of  her 
deceased  husband.  Tlie  essential  part  of  the  ceremony 
consists  in  the  placing  of  new  glass  bangles  on  the  widow's 
wrist. 

79.  Before  the   birth    of  a  first-born  child  in  the  last 

month  of  pregnancy  a  ceremony    called 

Customs  at  birth. 

sidhorl  is  performed.  The  relatives 
of  the  pregnant  woman  prepare  some  attractive  food  and 
bring  it  to  her  house,  where  she  is  seated  in  the  chank  or 
space  marked  out  with  lines  for  eating  in.  Music  is  played 
and  the  food  is  placed  in  her  lap.  The  name  comes  from  the 
word  sid/ior,  which  signifies  '  the  craving  of  a  pregnant 
woman  and  the  food  is  supposed  to  satisfy  this.  Women 
during  pregnancy  have  a  longing  for  special  and  sometimes 
for  unnatural  food,  as  is  shown  by  the  common  praciice  of 
eating  earth,  especially  the  black  clay  called  kanhdr,  or 
whitewash  scraped  from  the  walls  of  houses.  Chamar 
women    usually    act   as    midwives.     Before    the    birth    the 


SOCIAL    LIFE    AND    CUSTOMS.  1 01 

midwife  commonly  dips  her  hand  in  oil  and  stamps  it  on  the 
wall,  and  it  is  believed  that  she  can  tell  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  oil  trickles  down  whether  the  child  will  be  a  boy 
or  a  girl.  On  the  birth  of  a  child  the  navel-string  is  cut  and 
generally  burnt,  contrary  to  the  practice  over  the  rest  of  the 
Province  where  it  is  invariably  buried.  Among  the  agricul- 
tural castes  the  child  as  soon  as  it  is  born  is  laid  in  a 
winnowing  fan  filled  with  rice  and  this  is  then  given  to  the 
nurse.  As  a  rule  a  woman  receives  nothing  either  to  eat  or 
drink  for  three  days  after  she  has  borne  a  child.  On  the 
fourth  day  she  is  given  a  warm  decoction  of  ginger,  areca 
nut,  coriander,  turmeric  and  other  pungent  ingredients  with 
a  hot  taste  ;  and  she  receives  regular  food  for  the  first  time 
on  the  sixth  day.  Under  the  circumstances  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  the  death-rate  of  women  in  child-birth  is  high  ; 
though  there  is  now  a  tendency  to  amelioration  in  the 
treatment.  The  child  is  not  allowed  to  be  suckled  till 
the  third  day,  but  prior  to  that  is  given  a  mixture  of 
the  urine  of  a  calf  boiled  with  some  medicinal  root, 
or  of  honey  and  water.  On  the  sixth  da}'  after  birih  the 
child  is  often  branded  on  the  stomach  with  the  point  of  a 
sickle,  twenty  or  thirty  small  marks  being  made.  This  treat- 
ment is  supposed  to  prevent  it  from  catching  cold.  Anoiher 
common  practice  is  to  rub  the  limbs  of  a  child  twice  a  day 
with  warm  castor  oil.  On  the  birth  of  a  first  child  in  a 
cultivator's  family  a  badliai  or  congratulatory  ceremony  is 
performed.  The  midwife,  the  barber  and  the  washerman 
accompanied  by  musicians  go  to  the  house  of  the  woman's 
mother  or  the  grandmother  of  the  child;  the  midwife  plasters 
the  courtyard  with  cow-dung,  the  washerman  erects  a  bf^mboo 
with  a  white  cloth  tied  to  the  top  as  a  flag,  and  the  barber 
smears  her  forehead  with  vermilion.  They  receive  presents 
of  money  and  clothing  and  then  go  and  repeat  the  ceremony 
at  the  houses  of  the  other  maternal  relatives  of  the  child. 
Still-born  children  and  those  who  die  before  the  per- 
formances of  tiie  ceremony  of  purification  on  the  sixth  day  are 


102  HItASPUR.       POPUI  ATION. 

not  taken  to  llic  oidiiiaiy  site  to  be  buried,  but  the  body  is 
placed  in  an  cartlieu  vessel  and  buried  in  the  doorway  or 
yard  of  the  liouse.  Some  say  that  this  custom  renders  the 
mother  more  likely  to  have  another  child,  or  it  may  be  done 
wiih  a  view  to  saving  the  expense  of  the  feast  which  would 
have  to  be  given  for  an  ordinary  burial.  Another  explana- 
tion is  that  the  bodies  of  still-born  and  young  children  are 
especially  sought  after  by  llie  tunhh  or  witches,  who  make 
them  into  a  viuka  deo  or  dumb  spirit  ready  to  do  their  behest; 
and  that  the  body  is  therefore  buried  in  the  confines  of  the 
house  so  that  the  witches  may  not  get  hold  of  it.  Owing  to 
the  enforcement  of  sanitary  regulations  this  practice  is  now 
being  given  up.  If  three  boys  or  three  girls  have  been 
born  to  a  woman  the  people  think  that  the  fourth  should  be 
of  the  same  sex  in  order  to  make  up  two  pairs.  And  if  the 
child  is  of  different  sex  they  lay  it  under  a  basket  and  kindle 
a  fire  in  a  circle  all  round  it.  After  this  it  is  considered  that 
the  ill-luck  has  been  removed.  The  ceremon}i  is  called  litrd 
or  titrl  for  a  boy  or  girl  respectively. 

So.  If  parturition  is  delayed  various  devices  of  a  magical 
nature  are  employed  for  expediting 
Devices  at  child  birth,  it.  In  onc  of  these  3  line  of  boys  and 
men  is  made  from  the  bouse  to  the 
nearest  water;  and  a  brass  vessel  is  passed  from  hand  to 
hand  from  the  house,  filled  at  the  water  and  passed  back  again 
to  the  house  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  is  then  given  to  the 
woman  to  drink  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  quality  of  rapid 
transit  which  the  water  has  acquired  will  be  imparted  to  the 
woman,  and  delivery  will  thus  be  hastened.  Another  method 
is  to  make  the  woman  gaze  on  a  figure  of  a  maze  with 
horsemen  passing  along  it,  which  is  called  Rajfi  Bhoj's  army. 
It  is  thought  tluit  as  her  eye  follows  painfully  ihe  track 
cf  one  of  the  horsemen  trying  to  disentangle  the  path  which 
he  would  pursue  through  the  maze,  so  the  complications 
attending  delivery  will  be  removed  and  the  child  will  be 
ejected  from  the  womb.     Or  a  vessel  of  water  is  drawn  out 


SOCIAL    LIFE    AND    CUSTOMS.  IO3 

of  the  well  with  one  hand  and  carried  to  a  medicine-man 
without  being  touched  by  the  other  hand,  and  after  he  has 
said  some  charms  over  it  is  given  to  the  woman  to  drink.  Or 
some  of  the  clay  left  on  tiie  potter's  wheel  is  scraped  off  and 
given  her  to  drink  with  water.  Or  they  place  the  ring  worn 
by  the  husband  on  his  big  toe,  or  the  handle  of  a  sword 
made  in  Shah  Jahan's  reign  in  water,  and  give  it  to  the 
woman  to  drink.  It  is  said  that  if  a  sword  of  Shah  Jahan's 
reign  is  placed  with  a  lot  of  others  in  the  dark  and  one  of 
them  is  taken  at  random  this  one  will  always  come  to 
the  hand.  It  is  supposed  that  the  handles  of  swords  of  Shah 
Jahan's  time  are  made  of  an  amalgam  of  the  '  Ashta  dhata  ' 
or  eight  metals,  which  has  magical  virtues  of  different  kinds. 
81.  Burial  of  the  dead  is  more  common  in  Chhattisgarh 
than  in    other   parts    of   the   Province. 

Disposal  of  the  dead.  ^  .  .       ,  .       . 

Cremation  is  however  now  practised 
by  the  higher  classes  and  is  considered  a  more  honourable 
method  of  disposal  by  those  who  can  afford  it.  The  bodies 
of  rich  men  are  sometimes  burned  wiih  sandalwood  and 
branches  of  the  sacred  bel  or  /n/sl  are  laid  on  them.  It 
is  considered  more  holy  to  burn  the  body  with  cow-dung 
cakes  than  with  ordinary  wood.  But  nowadays  sometimes  if 
the  rain  comes  on  and  the  body  will  not  burn  they  use  kerosine 
oil.  Graves  are  always  dug  from  north  to  south.  This 
custom  may  perhaps  be  taken  from  the  Gonds  and  other 
Dravidian  races  among  whom  it  also  prevails  ;  but  some  of 
the  people  say  that  the  head  of  the  world  is  to  the  north  and 
others  that  in  the  Satyug  or  golden  age  the  sun  rose 
in  the  north.  The  Hindus  bury  the  corpse  of  a  man  face 
downwards  and  that  of  a  woman  face  upwards.  When  the 
grave  has  been  filled  in  and  a  mound  made  to  mark  the  spot, 
those  who  are  present  at  the  burial  each  make  five  small  balls 
of  earth  and  place  them  in  a  heap  at  the  head  of  the  grave. 
While  doing  this  tliey  address  the  corpse  saying  'Go, 
become  incarnate  in  some  human  being.'  This  custom  is 
called  Faiic/i  lakariya  or  five  sticks,  and  therefore   must    be 


104  nir.ASPiTR.     portJi.ATiON. 

copied  from  that  obtaining  at  a  cremation,  when  each  mourner 
brings  five  small  sticks  and  throws  them  on  the  funeral  pyre; 
its  original  meaning  probably  in  the  latter  case  was  tiiat  the 
mourners  should  assist  the  famdy  by  bringing  a  contribution 
of  wood  to  the  pyre.  As  adopted  in  burial  it  seems  to  have 
no  signifuance  but  has  some  resemblance  to  the  European 
custom  by  which  the  mourners  throw  a  little  dust  into 
the  grave.  It  is  considered  a  meritorious  act  to  be  present  at 
a  burial  and  there  is  a  saving  that  a  man  who  has  hini- 
seir  conducted  a  hundred  funerals  will  become  a  Raja  in  his 
next  birth.  J  he  idea  has  no  doubt  been  promulgated  by  the 
Brahmans  for  their  own  profit.  After  a  funeral  each  person 
who  has  helped  to  carry  the  bier  takes  up  a  clod  of  earth 
and  with  it  touches  the  place  on  his  shoulder  where  the  bier 
rested,  his  waist  and  his  knee,  afterwards  dropping  the  clod 
to  the  ground.  It  is  believed  that  by  so  doing  he  removes 
from  his  shoulder  the  weight  of  the  corpse  which  would  other- 
wise press  on  it  for  some  time. 

82.  When  a  Brahman  is  at  the  point   of  death  a  cow  or 

calf  is  sometimes  brought  into  the  room 
de?cl!'"''"^'     ^"^      '^^      ^"^   i^s  tail   being   held  over   his  face, 

water  is  poured  on  to  it  so  as  to  flow 
down  into  his  mouth.  It  is  considered  that,  on  this  calf  he  will  be 
able  to  cross  the  river  BaitarnT,  the  Hindu  Styx.  Others  put 
Ganges  water,  a  leaf  of  the  ////sJ  plant,  rice  cooked  in  jngan- 
nath's  temple,  or  a  piece  of  gold  into  his  mouth.  Two  kinds 
of  Hrahman  priests  officiate  at  funerals,  tlie  Malai,  who  reads 
theprayersfor  the  dead,  and  the  Kattaha  or  iVIahapStra  Brah- 
man, who  takes  the  gifts  offered  for  the  dead  man's  soul.  The 
latter  is  utterly  despised  and  looked  down  on  by  all  other 
Brahmans  and  by  the  community  generally  and  is  sometimes 
made  tolive  outside  the  village.  The  Kattaha  receives  grain, 
cooking  and  eating  vessels,  a  bed,  and  a  horse  and  cow  if 
the  owner  can  afford  it  A  part  of  his  business  is  to  eat  a 
quantity  of  cooked  food,  which  will  form  the  food  of  the 
deceased  in  the  other  world.  It  is  of  great  spiritual  importance 


SOCIAL    LIFE   AND    CUSTOMS.  105 

to  the  dead  man's  soul  that  the  Brahman  should  finish  the 
dish  set  before  him,  and  if  he  does  not  do  so  the  soul  will  fare 
badly ;  he  takes  advantage  of  this  by  stopping  in  the  middle 
of  the  meal,  saying  that  he  has  eaten  all  he  is  capable  of  and 
cannot  go  on,  so  that  the  relations  have  to  give  him  large 
presents  to  induce  him  to  finish  the  food.  The  Malai  is  an 
ordinary  Brahman,  who  officiates  at  funerals  as  the  Purohit 
does  at  births  and  marriages.  He  also  receives  presents  in 
money  according  to  the  means  of  his  clients  which  it  is  sup- 
posed will  benefit  the  dead  man's  soul  in  the  next  world,  but 
no  disgrace  attaches  to  tlie  acceptance  of  these.  The  pindds 
or  sacrificial  cakes  are  not  given  to  the  Brahman  but  are 
thrown  into  the  Ganges  or  some  river  close  by. 

83.  When  a  man's  last  moments  have  come  he  is  taken  off 
liis  cot  and  laid  on   the    ground,  so  that 

.pirrts.'"'"''''  ''^''^  '''^''"^  ^^^^  ^<^t  "i^y  "o^  t)^  "^^de  unlucky  by 
his  dying  on  it.  The  cot  is  then  turned 
upside  down  and  the  body  is  carried  out  for  burial  on  it 
in  this  fashion,  with  the  legs  of  the  cot  pointing  upwards.  It 
would  probably  be  considered  unlucky  for  the  dead  man  to 
lie  on  the  same  side  of  the  cot  as  a  living  man.  The  corpse 
is  generally  wrapped  in  old  clothes  and  a  new  piece  of  cloth 
is  placed  over  it  at  the  burning  ghdl.  After  a  death  when 
the  mourners  return  from  burning  or  burying  the  corpse  all 
the  principal  people  of  the  village  go  to  the  dead  man's  house 
and  condole  with  his  family.  During  the  period  of  mourning 
when  the  family  go  to  bathe,  they  march  one  behind  the  other 
in  Indian  file.  And  on  the  tenth  day  all  the  people  of  the 
village  accompany  them,  the  men  first,  and  after  they  have 
returned  the  women,  all  marching  in  Indian  file.  When  a 
zamindar  dies  his  heir  observes  no  mourning  and  is  not  defiled. 
He  becomes  zamindar  at  once  and  does  not  see  his  predeces- 
sor's face  or  follow  him  to  the  grave,  but  the  body  is  carried 
out  at  the  back  door  of  the  house  by  the  relatives  and  friends. 
The  reason  of  this  custom  is  obviously  that  the  new  zamindar 
should  not  be    rendered    incapable    by    the    impurity   which 

p 


,06  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

atiucl.cs  to  those  who  have  performed  rites  during  the  period  of 
n.ourning,  of  securing  his  succession  and  asserting  his  rights 
against  other  possible  dainiants.     Among  the  Saontas  when 
a  man   is  about  to  die  he  is  tied  on  to  his  cot  in    the  centre 
of  his  hut.  and  then  the  people  set  fire  to  the  hut  and  run  away 
out  of  sight.     This  is  no  doubi  done  in  order  to  prevent  the 
dead  man's  spirit  from  following  and  troubling  them. '       If  a 
woman  has  died  in  child-birth    or  after  the  birth  of  a  child 
and  before  the  performance  of  the  sixth  day  ceremony   of 
purification,  her  hands  are  tied   with  a  cotton   thread  when 
she  is  buried  in  order  that  her  spirit  may    be  unable  to  rise 
and  trouble  the  living.     It  is  beHeved  that  the  souls  of  such 
women  become  evil  spirits  or    chiirels.      Thorns    are   also 
placed  over  her  grave  for  the  same  purpose.   The  anniversaries 
of  the  dead  are  celebrated  during  Pitripaksh  or  the  dark  fort- 
night of  Kunvvar.     If  a  man  died  on  the   third   day    of   any 
fortnight  of  the  year  his  anniversary  is  celebrated  on  the  third 
day  of  this  fortnight,  and  so  on.     On  that  day  it  is  supposed 
that  his  spirit  will  revisit  its  earthly  home,  where  his  relatives 
reside.     But  the  souls  of  women  all  return  to  their  homes  on 
ilie  ninth  day  of  tlie    fortnight,  and    on    the    thirteenth    day 
come  the  souls  of  all  those  who  have  met  with  a  violent  death, 
as  by  a  fall,  or  have  been  killed  by   wild   animals  or  snakes. 
The  spirits  of  such  persons  are  supposed  in  virtue  of  their 
untimely  end  to  entertain  a  special  grudge  against  the  living. 
The  fact  that  they  should  come  on  the  thirteenth  day  perhaps 
indicates  a  belief  in  the  number  thirteen  being  unlucky,  but 
iio  other  instance  of  this  has  as  yet  been  met  with. 

84.  When  a  prominent  member  of  the  family  dies  among 
iheChamars,  it  is  customary  to  make  a 

Kcuirn  of  llie  soul. 

mark  on  his  body  either  with  ghl,  oil  or 
soot,  and  a  similar  mark  is  then  looked  for  on  the  bodies  of 
infants  subsequently  born  into  the  family.  If  some  thing  of 
the  kind  is  found  the  child  is  considered  to  be  a  reincarnation 


•    This  custom  i>  rcwirded  by  Mr    C.  U    \Vill>  from  he 


SOCIAL    LIFK    A.NU    CUSTOMS-  10/ 

of  the  dead  man's  spirit.  Among  the  Rawats,  Gonds  and 
Dhlmars  the  custom  prevails  of  bringing  back  the  dead  man's 
soul.  On  the  fourth  day  after  the  burial  relatives  go  to  a 
river  or  tank,  and  some  of  them  enter  the  water  while 
others  stand  on  the  bank.  These  latter  call  out  the 
name  of  the  deceased  person  and  ask  if  he  or  she  has 
come  back.  As  soon  as  one  of  those  in  the  water  has  caught 
a  fish  or  insect  he  answers  yes,  and  the  animal,  which  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  dead  man's  soul,  is  taken  back  to 
the  house  and  enshrined  there  and  worshipped.  The  Son- 
kars  (gardeners)  make  a  raised  circle  of  cow-dung  on  a  wooden 
board  and  fill  the  inside  with  v^rater.  A  fish  is  caught  and 
put  into  the  water  and  the  relatives  stand  round  with  their 
hands  outstretched.  The  fish  is  then  made  to  jump  out  and 
is  caught  in  somebody's  hand,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  soul 
has  come  back.  The  fish  is  put  back  into  some  river  or  tank. 
85.  Although  the  people  of  Chhattlsgarh  do  not  display 
any  great  measure  of  skill  or  energy 

Proverbs  and  riddles  "^    ^  ^^ 

in  cultivation,  they  recognise  in  their 
proverbs  how  necessary  it  is  to  success,  as  for  instance  : — '  If 
a  man  takes  his  pick  in  his  hand,  agriculture  is  the  best  of 
all  occupations  ;  but  if  he  has  to  ask  where  the  plough  is, 
his  cattle  will  soon  be  sold  up  ';  and  again  *  If  you  go  into 
the  field  .you  will  get  the  whole  crop  ;  if  you  sit  on  the  bank 
you  will  get  half;  but  if  you  stay  at  home  (while  your 
servants  do  the  work)  you  will  get  none  at  all.'  A  saying 
about  land  is — '  When  ploughing  b/tdta  Cyellow  gravelly 
soil)  the  cattle  will  jump  for  hghtness  of  heart,  but  when  the 
harvest  comes  the  master  will  beat  his  head ;  but  if  he  sows 
kanlidr  (black  soil)  he  will  marry  oflf  his  whole  family. ' 
Tne  following  is  a  somewhat  uncomplimentary  saying  about 
the  different  castes  :  — 

Hinli-bintl  Thdkur  mane,  Brahman  mane  khde, 

Nlch  jdl  lathiai  mane,  Kdyath  mane  pde. 
or  '  Use  flattery    to  a   Rajput,  and  feed  a  Brahman ;  give 
money   to  a  Kayasth,   and  kick  the  lower  castes.'     Another 


,08  HIIASPl-K.        POPn.ATION. 

saying  is—'  Among  beasts  the  jackal,  among  birds  the  crow, 
among  men   tiic  barber,   these    three  are  the  most  cunning.' 
A  saying  about  a  fool  is — '  His  cows  and  buffaloes  are  dead, 
so  he  ties  the  yoke  to  the  goat's  neck.  '     The  Chhattlsgarhl 
equivalent   for    counting   chickens  before    they    are    hatched 
is  —  '  He    has     neither    wedded     his    daughter    nor    found 
a    bridegroom    for    her;   but    he    is  pounding  rice   for   the 
sixth-day  ceremony  after  her  child's    birth.'     The  follow- 
ing    saying    shows    how    conventions    give    way    to    feel- 
ings:— '  The  hungry   man   asks  not   if  the  food   be  polluted, 
the  thirsty  man  will  drink   the  water  in  which  clothes  have 
been  washed,  the  sleepy   man  will  lie  down  on  a  bier,  and 
the  lover  cares   not  for  caste  or  outcaste.  '     Another  sensi- 
ble saying  is  — '  The  king  has   lost  his  elephant,  the  farmer 
has  lost  his   horse,  the  widow  has  lost  her  dog ;  the  loss  is 
equal   to  each. '   '  A   half-full  vessel   spills    as  it    is   carried 
along',  whereas  a  full  one  is  said  not  to  do  so.     The  people 
are  also  fond  of  riddles,  of  which  one  or  two  may  be  given, 
the  bulk  of  them   having   but  little  point : — '  What  is  that 
which  is  sixty  feet  high  when  newly  born,  one  foot  when 
full-grown,    and     thirty    feet    in     old     age.  '     Answer  '  A 
shadow.  '     *  The  king  of  whiteness,  and   not    born    on  the 
earth,   it  devours  a   hundred  fruits  and   yet  has  no   mouth? 
Answer  '  Hail.  '     '  Soft  when  it  is  unripe,  hard  vuhen    it  is 
ripe'.     Answer  '  An  earthern  vessel.  '     '  My  uncle  has  nine 
hundred  cows,    which  graze  by  niglit    and  are   folded    by 
day. '    Answer  '  The  stars. ' 

86.  Conspicuous  trees  most  naturally  give  their  names  to 
a  village  site  especially  in  a  jungle  dis- 

Village  name';. 

trict,  and  as  might  be  expected  a  very 
large  number  of  villages  in  Bilaspur  have  been  so  named 
rhe  favourite  trees  are  ani/i  (tamarind),  a/n  (mango),  film 
{Mclia  indica),  palas,  or  paisd  {Bufca  frondosa),  char,  mahua, 
kliair,  scmar,  pipar  and  bel  and  the  numerous  Amlidlhs, 
Amgaons,  Limtaras,  Limtaris,  Limhfis,  Limhis,  Khairas. 
Khairls,  Chargawans,    Charparas,  Parsadas,  Mahuagawans, 


SOCIAL    LIFK    AST)    CrSTOMS.  I OQ 

Semarias,  Pipardas  and  Belgahnas,  etc.,  are    tlius    accounted 
for.     Next  to  trees  come   water,   pools,  ponds,    tanks,  whirl- 
pools,   springs    and    streams,    as    distinctive   features   in    a 
thirsty  land,    usually  also  associated  with  trees  or  animals  to 
make  them    more  definite  ;  for  instance   Semartal    (tank  with 
semar  trees),  Bendarchua   (monkey  well),   Belsara  (tank  with 
del  trees),  BaghdabrI  .(tiger  pool),  Aurabaudha  [aonld  tank), 
Chikhaldahra  (muddy  pool),  Panchdhar  (five  streams),  Jhiria 
(spring),    Tenganbhauna   (whirlpool     full   of   tcngnd     fish), 
Piparbhauna  and  Nipania  , waterless).     In    this    District    the 
buffalo  is  much  more  commonly  associated  with  village  names 
than  other  animals  ;    Bhainso,  Bhainsadih,  Bhainsmunda,  and 
the  like,  being  very  frequently  met  with.     But   other  animals 
and  even  birds  and  insects  are  also  frequently  responsible  for 
names,    as,   for    example,     Kukurdih,    Billiband,    Hathibari, 
Ghoramar,    Gauband,    Koliliamura     (jackal),    Gadhabhatha, 
Haranmuri  ;  for  birds,  Kauwakapa,  Sarastal,  Koelari ;  and  for 
insects,  Jhinguridongri   (cicada),  Kekradih  (crab).      Hills  and 
rocks  again  provide  many  names  such  as  Paharia,  Dungaria  or 
Dongri  (hill),  Patharia,  Tharpakhna,  Dhukupakhna,  Pathartal 
{Jrom  patthar  OY pakhnd   stone),  while    Kachhar,  Kanharpur, 
Kalimati,  Lalmati,Chhuiha,  Darrabhatha  and  Kudhurdand  are 
all  named  after  various    kinds  of  soils.     The  peculiar  sounds 
emanating  from  the  fall  of  water  or  other  causes  near  certain 
places    have  given    the    latter    onomatopaeic    names  such   as 
Damdam,     Daldali,    Murmur,     Mulmula,     Burbur,     Lutluta, 
Rigriga,Bidbida,  DhabdhaL,  Tulbul,  Cheu,  and  Men;  the  last 
two  villages  lie  close  to  each  oiher  one   being  called  Cheu   (a 
bird's  chirp)    appropriately  responded    to  by  Meu   (the  cat's 
mewj.     Grasses  and  weeds   are  also  the  frequent  origin    of 
village    names,    e.g.,    Siliari,  Ankdih,   Kenadand,  Suklakhar, 
Kekti,    Purena,     Phursuladih,    Bharuvvamura,    Bhelwatikra, 
Ajwaindlh,  and  many  more.     Other  natural  sources  for  village 
names    are   the    deities    worshipped  in   them    {e.g.,  Rampur, 
Narayanpur,  Thakurdeva) ;  or  the  person  who  founded  them, 
e,g.,    Ratanpur  (founded  by  Ratnadeva)  and  Takhatpur  (by 


I  10  BII.A^PL'R.        I'OPL'I.ATION. 

rakhalsingli);  or  the  castes  which  occupied  them  as  in  Chamari, 
Haiijfiri,  Bania,  Khairwar,  Bamnidih,  etc.  Common  household 
utensils  such  as  Khatola  (cot),  Ghanochi  (water  tripod),  Telai 
(earthern  cooking  pot),  Jhanjh  (cymbals),  Mathani  (churning 
stick),  Kathoti  (watering  trough),   Kunda  (water  basin)  also 
serve  a  turn  when  imagination  weakens.     Crops  too  are  fairly 
represented   in   village   names,  many    of   which   contain    the 
word  (ihdn  (rice),  e.g.,  Dhanras,  Dhaneli  and  Dhanora,  etc. ; 
while  Newari,  Karheni,   Kakeni,  Chironjpur  and  Karangara 
are  all  names  derived  from  different  kinds  of  rice.    Masurikhar 
is   named  after  niasur,  Arasia  after  alsi   and  Kodwa  after 
kodon.     There    are     numerous    Hardis     named  after    hardi 
(turmeric).     Other  names   arc   more    abstract   such   as    the 
numerous    Nawagaons    or    Nawaparas  (new  villages),    the 
honorific   or   ornamental    Raja,   Rani  and  Lalpurs    (king's, 
queen's   or   prince's    towns)    with  many    variants    such    as 
Ranidera  (queen's  camp),  Rajakapa  (king's  hamlet),  Ranisagar 
(queen's  tank),  Ranigaon,  Ranibachhali,  Ranijhanp,  Rajadih, 
Rajadhiir,  and  so  on.     The  existence  of  the  latter  seems  due 
to  the  fact  that  this   District  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
Haihaya  kings  for  several   centuries.     Satlghat  {satl  pass) 
recalls  the  memory  of  an  ancient  satl  and  Tonhichua  (the 
witch's   well)    of   the    drowning   of   a   witch ;    Sanlchardlh 
(Saturn's  hamlet)  probably  suffered  misfortunes  attributed  to 
Saturn's  evil  influence ;  Baihakapa  f  madman's   hamlet)  was 
apparently  so  named  because  residence  in  that  place  was 
supposed    to   cause    madness,    or  from   the  common   native 
feeling  that  a  depreciative  name  such  as  Darrabhatha  (stony 
waste   land),    Daojara   (burnt    by    a  forest    fire),    Nipania 
(waterless)  or  one  absolutely  opprobious  such  as  Deogarhiaor 
Bhonsripali  would  bring  with  it  freedom  from  the    envy    of 
malicious  spirits.     Rahtatod   (breaker  of   spinning   wheels) 
owed   its    name   to   its    bumper  cotton  crop,    which    ruined 
the  spinning  wheels   by  excessive  use.     Some  villages  are 
curiously  named  after  relatives  in  a  family  such  as  Mama 
(maternal  uncle),  Bhancha  (sister's  son),   Deorani  (younger 


SOCIAL    LIFE    AND    CUSTOMS.  lit 

brother's  wife),  Bapaputi  (father  and  son)  and  Nanapuri 
(from  udua  maternal  grandfather).  They  are  usually  met 
with  in  pairs  such  as  Mama  Bhancha.  These  and  other  pairs 
such  as  Nahna  Jota  (leather  thongs  for  the  plough  yoke  and 
neck  ropes  for  the  oxen)  appear,  Mr.  Low  thinks,  to  be  due 
to  a  partition  having  taken  place  at  some  previous  time  or 
to  a  fanciful  contrast  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  two 
villages.  As  in  the  Baihar  tahsll,  there  is  here  also  a 
curious  juxtaposition  of  villages  with  identical  names  occurring 
in  two  distinct  places,  vis.,  Beladula,  Kachanda  and  Amlidih. 
These  three  names  occur  in  three  contiguous  villages  of 
the  Janjgir  tahsll,  and  again  also  in  three  others  of  the 
adjoining  Sarsiwa  tract.  The  usual  words  indicating  a  town 
or  village  are  /)ur  and  gaoii  (corruption  of  Sanskrit  grama) 
and  ttdr  (Gondi),  but  those  most  in  use  in  the  District  are 
to/d,  pd/a,  kdpa,  dih,  pdli,  and  kherwd  all  of  which  mean  a 
hamlet.  It  was  usual  in  former  times  for  cultivators  to 
crowd  together  for  protection  from  robbers  and  dacoits  into 
single  large  communities.  Hence  the  number  of  uninhabited 
hamlets  was  very  large.  In  these  days  of  public  security 
this  is  no  longer  necessary,  but  a  number  of  small  settle- 
ments in  the  Mungell  tahsll  broke  up  in  the  big  famines 
a  few  years  ago  from  fear  of  dacoity.  Other  common  termi- 
nations attached  to  names  of  villages  are  tard,  iarai,  sard,  tdl, 
bondh  and  sdgar  (tank)  ;  dabri,  dahrd  (pool),  ndla  (brook) ; 
bod  {dWm^  place),  pdni  (water;,  dongar  or  dongari  (hillock), 
bhdtha  (waste-land),  ddnr  (level  gvound),  tnunda  and  pdr 
(embankment) ;  khi'eia  or  koni  (corner).  In  the  Janjgir  tahsll 
there  are  a  number  of  villages  with  a  peculiar  termination 
and,  probably  meaning  a  tank  as  in  Pisaud,  Hasaud,  Tanaud, 
Taraud,  Karnaud  and  Rahaud. 

LEADING    FAMILIES. 

87.  Among  the  leading  families  of  the  District  the  ten 
zamindars  take  the  first  place   They  are 

General  notice. 

with    two    exceptions    what    are    now 
known  as  Tanwars  as  distinguished  from  Kanwars  or  Kawars 


112  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

with  whom  no  connection  is  now  maintained.  The  excep- 
tions arc  the  /amindars  of  Pandaria  and  Kanteli  who  are 
Kaj-Gonds.  Kiglil  zamlndaris  occupy  the  mountainous 
tracts  in  tiic  north  and  cast  of  the  District.  Pandaria  is  on 
the  north-west  and  Kanteli  in  four  portions  in  the  centre 
of  the  Mungeli  tahsil.  Tlie  estates  vary  in  size  from  25  to  856 
square  miles  containing  from  44  to  359  villages.  Korba, 
i'cndrfi  and  Pandaria  arc  the  most  important.  Chhuri, 
Lapha,  Uprora,  Kenda,  Matin  and  Champa  are  also  of 
considerable  size,  but  Matin  is  very  sparsely  populated. 
Kanteli  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  estates.  The  Chandarpur 
and  Padampur  estates  also  enjoyed  the  zamindari  status  for 
some  time,  but  this  has  now  lapsed  and  the  proprietors  have 
become  mere  malguzars  ;  nevertheless  the  estates,  which  are 
under  one  proprietor,  are  important.  The  history  of  the 
zamindars'  families  lias  been  given  under  the  notice  of  each 
zamindari  in  the  Appendix.  Their  traditions  as  well  as 
tjiose  of  other  leading  families  of  the  District  to  be  presently 
described  would  show  that  the  original  founders  were  as  a 
rule  adventurers.  Almost  all  claim  to  have  come  from  the 
north  either  in  search  of  employment  or  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  famous  Jagannathpuri,  the  high  road  to  which  passed, 
as  it  still  does  for  pedestrians,  through  this  District.  On 
their  return  journey  from  Jagannath  the  more  adventurous 
spirits  among  the  pilgrims  usually  visited  the  Court  at  Ratan- 
pur  and  by  their  learning  in  the  case  of  Brahmans  and 
military  service  in  the  case  of  otiier  castes  acquired  landed 
property,  which  kept  them  in  the  country.  Some  estates 
are  merely  gifts  for  charitable  purposes.  There  arci 
however,  none  which  may  be  said  to  be  in  the  hands  of 
tiie  descendants  of  the  original  Haihayavansis,  though  a 
few  families  claim  connection  with  their  successors,  the 
Bhonslas. 

J>S.  The  Bhonsla  family  of  Nargora  claims  to  be  a  scion 

,., ,    ,     .,  t'f   the    old    Raj    family    of    Ratanpur 

which  is  associated   with   the  name  of 


LEADING    FAMILIES.  II3 

Bimbaji.  Bimbaji  was  the  younger  brother  of  the  Nfigpur 
Raja.  The  family  traces  its  descent  from  one  Mahaji 
Bhonsla,  who  was  a  distant  uncle  of  Bimbaji  and  served 
under  him  as  an  important  dignitary  holding  command  of 
1000  horse  and  2000  foot.  He  held  the  village  of  Nargora 
on  mudfi  tenure  with  an  additional  allowance  of  Rs.  250  per 
mensem.  The  privileges  of  Mahaji  Bhonsla  are  said  to  have 
descended  to  his  children  for  two  generations  until  on  the 
death  of  Chimnaji  Bapuji  they  were  denied  to  his  offspring 
owing  to  the  general  disorder  that  followed  the  ruin  of  the 
Nagpur  Raj.  The  village  of  Nargora  was,  however,  allowed 
to  be  retained  niudfi  and  it  is  still  so  held  by  the  representa- 
tives of  the  family,  though  it  is  now  split  up  into  various 
small  shares,  the  largest  of  which  amounting  to  R.  0-8-0  is 
held  by  one  Hiraji,  the  great-grandson  of  Chimnaji  Bapuji, 
who  is  the  present  lambarddr  of  the  village.  The  eldest  of 
the  survivors  of  this  famil}^,  Raoji  by  name,  is  a  Local  Board 
member. 

Another  Bhonsla  family  that  claims  relationship  with  the 
same  Raj  family  of  Ratanpur  is  one  of  which  the  present 
proprietors  of  the  village  of  Chichirda  are  members.  This 
family  claims  to  have  descended  from  one  Amar  Singh,  whose 
wife  JijI  Bai  was  the  sister  of  the  junior  Rani  of  Bimbaji  of 
Ratanpur.  It  is  said  that  on  account  of  this  connection  Jiji 
Bai  was  given  in  mudfi  the  village  of  Armori  in  the  Sanjari 
tahsll  of  Drug  by  her  sister  the  Rani  on  the  occasion  of  her 
cA?7r/-wearing  ceremony,  After  her  husband's  death  Jijl 
Bai  was  e;iven  for  her  maintenance  three  more  mudfi  villages 
Chichirda  being  among  them,  with  a  pension  of  Rs.  3000  per 
annum.  On  the  fall  of  the  Nagpur  Raj  the  miidfi  nght  of 
the  villages  was  resumed  except  that  of  Chichirda,  which  was 
also  subsequently  lost  on  the  death  of  Tatia  Rao  or  Tatoba 
who  was  adopted  by  Jiji  Bai  as  her  son.  The  pension  given 
to  JijI  Bai  is  still  being  enjoyed  by  the  descendants  of  Tatia 
Rao,  though  on  a  reduced  scale.  It  is  liable  to  reduction  at 
each  successive  generation,  Vishwanath  Rao  and  his  brothers 


I  14  UILASrUR.       rOI'ULATION. 

(grandsons  of  Talia  Rao)  receiving  jointly  now  only 
Ks,  128-20  per  annum.  Vishvvanatli  Rao's  uncle  Baji  Rao 
has  renounced  i)is  claim  to  the  hereditary  pension  in  exchange 
for  the  whole  village  of  Arniori,  which  should  otherwise  have 
been  equally  divided  between  him  and  his  nephews  Vishwa- 
nath  Rao  and  others. 

89.  The   principal    Maratha  Brahman   families   are   the 
malguzars  and   Shastris   of   Ratanpur. 

Maratha  Bialiniaiis.  ,_*_,-, 

The  present  malguzars  ot  Ratanpur 
are  tliree  brothers,  the  eldest  being  Khande  Rao  They  trace 
their  descent  from  one  Sakharam  Gopal  about  whom  they 
tell  the  following  story  : — Sakharam  Gopal  and  his  brother 
Biipu  Gopal  were  originally  residents  of  Balapur-Akola  in 
Berar.  The  former  was  Kamaishdar  of  the  place.  During 
an  invasion  of  Hyderabad  by  Madho  Rao  Peshwa  these 
brothers  deserted  the  Nizam's  service  and  went  to  Nagpur  to 
assist  Chimnaji  Bapnji,  the  representative  of  the  Peshwa. 
Later  on  they  accompanied  Chimnaji  Bapu  in  his  invasion  of 
Orissa,  where  Bapu  Gopal  died.  Sakharam  was  then 
appointed  Subahdar  of  that  countr^^  He  afterwards  in 
his  old  age  left  Orissa  in  charge  of  his  brother-in-law 
and  retired  to  Ratanpur  where  he  died.  His  son  after 
him  was  Kamaishdar  of  different  places  and  was  appointed 
as  such  at  Ratanpur  which  was  therefore  settled  in  his  name 
wiien  the  Nagpur  Raj  on  its  fall  came  under  the.  British 
Government.  The  proprietary  right  in  the  village  has  since 
uninterruptedly  descended  in  a  regular  line  through  the 
members  of  this  family.  Ganpat  Rao,  father  of  the  present 
proprietors,  was  a  conspicuous  figure  in  his  time  at  Ratanpur, 
having  been  a  Darbfui,  a  Bench  Magistrate  and  exempt  under 
the  Arms  Act.  The  family  lives  inside  tlie  Ratanpur  fort 
where  they  have  built  their  houses.  The  family  is  indebted. 
The  Shastris  belong  to  two  families,  the  Digliraskars 
and  the  Vithilknrs,  both  being  the  family  priests  of  the  Bhons- 
las,  the  former  occupying  a  superior  position  to  the  latter. 
The  Digluaskar  family,  otherwise  known  as  the  Raj-Purohit 


LEADING    FAMILIES.  I  I  5 

family,  takes  its  name  from  the  village  Dighras  in  Satara  of 
which  its  ancestors  were  formerly  residents.  It  rose  into 
prominence  from  its  connection  with  the  Bhonsla  Raj  family 
of  Ratanpur  as  their  purohits  in  which  capacity  it  served  the 
Raj  family  for  many  generations.  One  Krishna  Bhat,  an 
ancestor  of  this  family,  is  said  to  have  come  to  Ratanpur  with 
Bimbaji  Maharaj  to  officiate  as  purohil  for  the  Raj  family  and 
to  have  been  granted  22  villages  in  ntudfi,  15  in  Bilaspur  and 
7  in  Raipur,  But  17  of  these  are  said  to  have  been  taken 
back  by  Bimbaji's  successors  and  the  remaining  5  still  con- 
tinue iniidft  in  the  family.  Besides  these  villages  the  family 
was  given  a  /)i//i'/ allowance  in  the  shape  of  two  inudfi  villages 
of  Ramlala  and  Kandar  and  a  cash  allowance  of  Rs.  700  a 
year.  But  on  the  Nagpur  Raj  going  over  to  the  British  these 
two  villages  are  said  to  have  been  resumed  and  the  cash  allow- 
ance reduced  to  Rs.  250  per  annum,  a  mudfi  village  being 
given  in  exchange  for  the  balance.  Over  and  above  this  a  royal 
robe  was  awarded  by  the  Raj  famil}'  to  its  piirohit  at  every 
Dasahra,  but  this  custom  was  discontinued  under  the  British 
Government,  a  fixed  allowance  of  Rs.  152  per  annum  being 
substituted.  Thus  the  descendants  of  the  family  got  a  total 
cash  allowance  of  Rs.  375  per  annum,  subject  however  to  a 
reduction  of  50  per  cent,  at  each  successive  generation,  so  that 
the  present  survivors  Janardan  Shastri  and  Purushot.tam  Shis- 
tri  now  get  only  Rs.  94  each.  Janardan  Shastri  is  the  richer 
of  the  two  owning'  1 1  malguzari  villages  in  addition  to  his 
shares  in  the  hereditary  iiindfi  villages.  Both  are  Da'-baris, 
while  Purushottam  Shastri  is  a  Bench  Magistrate  also  Janar- 
dan Shastri  is  a  descendant  five  generations  and  Purushottam 
Shastri  four  generations  removed  from  Krishna  Bhat. 

There  is  a  senior  branch  of  this  family,  which  traces  its 
descent  from  one  Sakharam  Bhat,  who  was  a  nephew  of 
Krishna  Bhat  being  the  son  of  his  elder  brother.  Sakharam 
Bhat  was  Subahdar  of  Raipur  for  some  time  and  during  the 
atter  period  of  his  life  was  attached  to  the  council  of  the 
Bhonslas  at  Nagpur  as  also  was  his  son  Krishna  Bhat.    The 


Il(5  BII.ASPUR.       POPULATION. 

latlcr's  son,  Vishnu  Shastri,  was  a  Darbari,  a  Bench  Magis- 
trate and  exempt  under  the  Arms  Act.  Raghunath  Rao 
and  Vishwanfilh  Rao,  sons  of  Vishnu  Shaslri,  are  the  present 
representatives  of  this  branch.  They  jointly  own  the  viii a fi 
village  of  Mopka  besides  malguzari  villages.  The  former  is 
a  Darbfiri  and  a  Bench  Magistrate  and  the  latter  a  Tahsildar 
in  British  service.  The  family  has  always  been  conspicuous 
for  its  loyalty. 

The  Vithalkar  family  derives  its  name  from  the  village 
Vithal  in  Satara,  which  was  the  original  home  of  its  ancestors. 
This  family  was  also  in  the  service  of  the  old  Bhonsla  Rajas 
of  Ratanpur  as  Raj-purohits,  but  being  second  in  rank,  was 
granted  only  two  nniafi  villages  of  Mangla  and  Neosa.  These 
villages  are  now  divided  between  the  two  branches  of  the 
family.  Among  the  survivors  of  the  family  Govind  Shastri  is 
well  read  in  Shastras  and  Puranas  and  is  a  Darbari  and  a 
Bench  Magistrate.  His  father  Damodar  Shastri  also  enjoyed 
both  these  distinctions  in  his  lifetime. 

These  Siiastri  families  continued  to  live  on  at  Ratanpur 
until  recently  and  left  the  supervision  of  their  villages  to 
others  with  the  result  that  they  all  became  involved  in  debt. 
They  have  now  been  compelled  to  bestir  themselves,  and 
have  all  left  Ratanpur  and  settled  on  their  own  property. 

90.  Among  local  Brahmans  the  most  important  is  the 

Pande   family   of   which    Mohanlal    of 

Chhattisgarhi     Brah-     Sakarra,  Biharilal  of  Singhri  and  Hiralal 

mans.  '  ° 

of  Moch  are  the  descendants.  These 
representatives  are  mutual  cousins  and  point  to  one  Manik 
Deo  nine  generations  back  as  their  common  ancestor.  Manik 
Deo  was  an  Upper  Indian  belonging  to  Triphala,  a  village 
near  Ajodhya.  He  started  to  Jagannath  on  a  pilgrimage  and 
as  the  road  lay  as  it  does  now  through  Bilaspur,  he  paid  a 
visit  to  the  Ratanpur  Court  on  his  return  journey.  The  Raja 
was  pleased  with  his  learning  and  appointed  him  Raj-purohit, 
or  family  priest.  He  thus  became  domiciled  in  Ratanpur. 
Of  the  present  representatives  of  his  family  Pandit  Hiralal  is 


LEADING    FAMILIES,  Il7 

a  Local  Board  member.  He  is  one  cf  the  more  intelligent 
malguzars  in  the  District  and  can  be  counted  upon  for  willing 
co-operation  with  Government  in  public  matters. 

There  is  another  Pande  family  at  Kheda  in  the  Mungeli 
^ahsll,  which  owns  13  whole  villages  and  shares  in  ii 
vilages.  It  claims  descent  from  one  Adhar  Pande  who  came 
to  Ratanpur  from  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh  over 
200  years  ago  and  received  a  village  called  Jalso  in  miidji^ 
Its  present  representative  is  Ripusudan,  who  lives  at  Kheda 
which  forms  part  of  his  landed  property. 

The  Tiwaris  of  Karnod  say  they  are  immigrants  from 
Baghelkhand.  Hiralal,  Sheoprasad  and  Gangaprasad  were 
three  brothers  who  lived  in  mauza  Mankahri  in  the  Rewah 
State.  They  also  went  to  Jagannath  and  while  passing  through 
Bilaspur  saw  enough  of  the  District  to  make  up  their  mind 
to  settle  there.  So  on  their  way  back  they  settled  in  mauza 
Govinda  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil.  Subsequently  the  two  elder 
brothers  shifted  to  Champa  and  Gangaprasad  obtained  from 
the  Raja  of  Nagpur  a  lease  of  9  villages  including  Govinda 
and  Karnod  and  of  another  tract  of  12  villages  known  as 
Odekera  taluk,  which  he  afterwards  lost  somehow.  The 
9  villages  still  remain  in  his  family.  His  eldest  grandson 
Balmukund  is  a  District  Council  and  Local  Board  member. 

Another  Tiwari  family  worthy  of  mention  is  that  of 
the  Loharsi  malguzars  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil.  This  family 
traces  its  origin  to  a  Pandit  of  Upper  India,  who,  it  is  said, 
received  a  grant  of  52  villages  from  the  Haihayavansi  Raja 
of  Ratanpur.  One  of  the  descendants  of  the  family  named 
Gangaram  left  his  ancestral  residence  at  mauza  Khokra  in 
the  Janjgir  tahsil  and  settled  at  Loharsi,  where  it  is  said  he 
acquired  84  villages  including  Loharsi.  But  at  the  time  of 
Mr.  Chisholm's  settlement  only  16  malguzari  and  6  superior 
proprietary  villages  were  recorded  in  his  name  and  these  still 
continue  in  the  possession  of  his  descendants  among  whom 
they  have  been  divided.  There  are  at  present  2 1  represen- 
tatives of  the    family  of  whom  Kalkaprasad  is  the  principal. 


|l8  nn.ASPUR.       POPULATION. 

lie  owns  two  whole  villages  and  has  shares  in  several.  His 
cousin  Durgapras.id,  who  owns  an  equal  amount  of  landed 
property,  is  a  Local  Board  member.  Tlie  family  is  notorious 
for  the  large  number  of  its  members.  The  original  separa- 
tion of  the  family  is  said  to  have  taken  place  about  lOO  years 
ago  during  the  lifetime  of  Thakurram  and  Gayaram.  There 
are  now  9  branches  of  the  family  including  in  all  107  members. 
91.  The  owner  of  the  Lormi  tahutdari  is  a  Bairagi.  His 
taluk  consists  of    104  villages  contain- 

Bairagi  families.  .  .... 

ing  an  area  of  94  square  miles.  It  is 
situated  to  the  north  of  the  Mungell  tahsil.  It  is  said  that 
the  taluk  was  originally  given  in  charity  to  one  Baramdas  Bai- 
ragi in  1826  by  the  Raja  of  Nagpur.  This  Bairagi  died  in 
1853  and  his  <:/?<'/«  named  Lakhmldas  succeeded  him.  There 
are  now  four  surviving  sons,  Ramkrislmadas  and  Garurdas 
by  one  wife  and  Bajrangdas  and  Laldas  by  another  wife.  The 
estate  has  been  divided  among  these  four  brothers  and  each  is 
in  separate  possession  of  his  share,  Ramkrishnadas  being 
recognised  by  the  others  as  head.  Ramkrishnadas  is  a  Dar- 
bari.  Bajrangdas  is  a  District  Council  member  besides  being 
a  Darbari.  On  the  death  of  the  father  about  ten  years  ago, 
the  sons  quarrelled  on  the  question  of  the  partition,  and  the 
estate  was  under  attachment  for  some  time  for  default  of 
payment  of  land  revenue;  but  it  is  now  managed  by  the  pro- 
prietors themselves,  who  have  still  some  private  debt  to  pay. 

Mahant  Gautamdas  claims  to  be  the  12th  successor  of 
the  N^ihanggadd:  of  Seorinarayan.  (Among  Nihang  Bairagis 
marriage  is  forbidden  )  He  has  his  jnath  at  Seorinarayan- 
To  this  ;m^/// are  attached  6  revenue-free  and  12  ordinary 
villages.  The  former  are  said  to  have  been  granted  by  the 
Raja  of  Ratanpur  and  the  latter  are  said  to  have  been  subse- 
quently acquired  in  Samvat  1915  (1858  AD.).  Swami  Arjun- 
das  was  the^^'-///-// or  religious  preceptor  of  Mahant  Gautamdas. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  at  the  age  of  75,  after  having  held  the 
gaddi  for  44  years.  He  is  spoken  of  as  having  been  a  very 
religious    man  who    constructed    tanks,  wells,    schools    and 


LEADING    FAMILIES.  119 

temples  and  planted  gardens,  etc.  .  In  1877  on  the  occasion  of 
the  assumption  of  Queen  Victoria  of  the  title  of  Empress  of 
India,  he  was  granted  a  certificate  by  Government  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  loyalty  to  the  British  Government.  The  present 
Mahant  has  done  much  towards  the  improvement  of  the  math 
and  the  expansion  of  cultivation.  He  is  now  very  old,  being 
about  74  and  has  entrusted  the  management  of  his  affairs  to 
a  young  disciple  of  about  29,  named  Laldas.  The  Mahant 
is  a  Darbari  and  also  exempt  under  the  Arms  Act. 

The  gaddi  is  traced  to  one  Dayaramdas  who  is  said  to 
have  settled  at  Seorlnarayan  while  on  a  pilgrimage  from 
Gwalior  and  to  have  obtained  a  grant  of  six  niiidfi  villages  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  temple  from  the  Raja  of  Ratanpur. 

The  list  of  Mahants  is  as  follows  : — 


Swami  Dayaramdasji. 

Swami  Kalyandasji. 

Swami  Haridasji. 

Swami  Balakdasji. 

Swami  Mahadasji. 

Swami  Mohandasji. 


Swami  Saratramdasji. 
Swami  Mathuradasji. 
Swami   Prenidasji. 
Swami   Tulsidasji. 
Swami  Arjundasji. 
Swami  Gautamdasji. 


92.   The  Chandarpur  family  is  Kshattriya  by    caste.     It 
claims  its  origin  from  one   Suraj  Singh 

Rajput  families.  ^  .         _  _  jo 

Thakurai,  Raja  of  Sinpos  near  Delhi, 
whose  descendants  are  said  to  have  originally  come  and  taken 
up  service  under  a  tributary  chief  of  the  Raja  of  Surguja. 
It  is  said  that  subsequently  one  of  the  members  of  the  family 
named  Bahadur  Singh  took  up  service  under  Abhiram  Singh, 
Raja  of  Saraikela,  and  there  distinguished  himself  by  assist- 
ing an  European  officer  in  putting  down  a  disturbance  among 
the  Kols  and  Santalsat  Chainpurnear  Singbhum.  It  appears 
that  after  Bahadur  Singh  his  second  son  Rup  Singh  rendered 
much  assistance  to  the  British  Government  in  the  troubled 
times  of  the  Mutiny.     Mr.  Russell's  Settlement  Report  of  the 

Sambalpur  District  gives  the  following  account  of  his  career  : 

'  Rup  Singh  was   the  Munsiff  of  the'Sambalpur  District 
'  in  1857-1858.     For  services  rendered  by  him  to  the  British 


120  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

*  Government  before  that  time,  when  in  the  employ  of  the 
'  late  Raja  of  Sambalpur  he  liad  received  the  title  of  *'  Rai 
'  Bahadur"  under  a  sanad  bearing  the  seal  and  signature  of 
'  Lord  Dalhousie,  Governor-General  of  India.  After  this  as 
'  a  substantial  acknowledgment  of  his  loyal  services  to  the 

*  British  Government  during  the  time  of  the  Mutiny  the 
'  following  6  estates  in  the  Sambalpur  District  were  trans- 
'  fcrred  to  him,  as  sanctioned  in  Government  of  India,  Home 
'Department,  Judicial  letter  No.  2149,  dated  the  25th  Sep- 
'tembcriSsS,  to  the  Government  of  Bengal,  owing  to  the 
'  proprietors  of  the  estates  having  joined  the  rebels  : — 

(i)  Kolabira,  (2)  Rampur,  (3)  Barri-killa, 
(4)  Patkulunda,  (5)  Kharsal,  (6)  Kurkutta. 
'Subsquently,  after  the  Queen's  amnesty  was  proclaimed, 
'in  1859  the  proprietors  of  the  6  attached  estates  wished  to 
'  come  back  and  settle  down  in  their  respective  homes  and 
'  according  to  a  compromise  sanctioned  by  the  Government  of 
'Bengal  in  Januar}'  1862  the  6 estates  were  restored  to  their 

*  respective  proprietors  and  the   taluks  of  Chandarpur  and 

*  Padampur  were  given  to  Rai  Bahadur  Rijp  Singh  in  exchange 
'  in  zamindari  right  on  payment    of   an    annual    revenue    of 

*  Rs.  4130,  which  amount  was  fixed  for  a  period  of  40  years 
'ending  in  1S98.'  On  his  death  in  1864  Rai  Bahadur  Rup 
Singh  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Hari-Har  Singh,  who 
is  the  present  proprietor  of  the  estatejointly  with  his  brothers 
Shyam  Sundar  Singh  and  Narayan  Singh  and  nephews  Bikram 
Singh  and  Abhiram  Singii  Hari-Har  Singh  holds  the  title  of 
'  Rai  Bahadur  '  and  was  granted  a  certificate  in  1877.  He  is  a 
second-class  Magistrate  and  an  Honorary  Assistant  Com- 
missioner. His  younger  brother  Thakur  Shyam  Sundar  Singh 
is  an  Honorary  Assistant  District  Superintendent  of  Police. 
The  estate  comprises  227  villages  and  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Court  of  Wards  for  indebtedness.  Besides 
this  estate  the  family  has  four  villages  in  the  Bargarh  tahsil 
of  the  Samb.ilpur  District.  The  family  claims  to  be  Surwar 
Kshattriyas  of  the  Garg  golra* 


LEADING    FAMILIES.  121 

93.  The   principal   Bania   family  in  this  District  is  the 
one     which    traces    its  origin  to   the 

Bania  families. 

ancestors  of  one  Bakhat  Dam.  It  is 
said  that  during  the  Maratha  rule  tliese  ancestors  came  from 
Upper  India  and  settled  in  a  village  in  the  Chandarpur 
taluk.  Bakhat  Dani's  son  Manmadhu  Sao  changed  his  resi- 
dence to  mauza  Bhainso  and  thence  to  mauza  Kosa,  both  in 
the  Janjgir  tahsll,  and  after  this  Manmadhu  Sao's  son  Shan- 
kar  Sao  is  said  to  have  taken  up  his  residence  at  Bilaspur 
about  125  years  ago.  From  here  he  first  acquired  the  village 
of  Mallar,  and  subsequently  as  his  business  of  grain-dealing 
prospered,  he  got  possession  of  a  number  of  villages  in  the 
Bilaspur  tahsil.  At  the  time  of  Mr.  Chisholm's  settlement 
pattds  of  34  malguzari  and  3  adnd  villages  were  in  July  1864 
given  to  his  son  Maharajsai  Sao.  Subsequently  the  family 
acquired  14  more  and  is  now  in  possession  of  51  villages, 
one  of  which  is  a  damdmi  village.  Maharajsai's  eldest 
son  Tikaram  Sao  was  well  known  in  the  District.  He  was 
a  Darbari  and  exempt  from  the  Arms  Act,  but  lost  the 
privileges  before  his  death  The  present  representatives 
of  the  family  are  Ahlad  Sao,  Ajudhya  Prasad  Sao  aild 
Gendram  Sao  of  whom  Ahlad  Sao  is  a  Darbari  and  Ajudhya 
Prasad  Sao  a  Municipal  member. 

Kheduram  Sao  of  Seorlnarayan  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil 
has  a  large  money-lending  business.  He  owns  5  whole  vil- 
lages and  has  shares  in  4  others.  He  has  assigned  one  village 
to  a  Mahadeo  temple  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil.  He  is  a  Darbari, 
and  before  him  his  father  Makhan  Sao  enjoyed  this  honour. 
He  is  also  exempt  under  the  Arms  Act.  Kheduram  Sao  has 
a  large  family  consisting  of  over  50  members  who  all  live 
jointly.  He  is  a  man  of  considerable  tact  and  is  very  popular 
with  the  residents  of  Seorlnarayan  and  adjoining  villages. 

The  Agarwal  Bania  family  of  Ratanpur  claims  its 
origin  from  one  Chain  Singh's  grandfather  who  is  said  to 
have  come  from  Delhi  and  taken  up  service  under  the  then 
Haihayavansi  Raja  of  Ratanpur  named  Kalyan  Sahai.     Chain 

R 


1^  BILASPUR.      POPULATION. 

Singh  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  permanently  settled  at 
Ratanpur,  but  little  is  known  of  the  next  three  generations. 
The  family  is  in  possession  of  documents  which  show  that 
Chain  Singh's  great-great-grandson  Ghasiram  Sao  carried 
on  a  money-lending  business  on  a  large  scale  among  the 
zamindars  and  talukdars  of  the  District  and  in  June  1873 
secured  the  Diwanship  of  the  Khairagarh  Feudatory  State 
on  a  salary  of  Rs.  ico  per  mensem  by  paying  a  tiazrdna 
of  Rs.  1250  to  the  then  ruling  Chief.  In  his  lifetime  he 
acquired  25  villages  as  follows  :  — 

4  malguzari  villages  in  the  iVIandla  District, 
17  malguzari  villages  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil, 
4  damdmi  villages  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil. 

He  died  about  the  year  1881  leaving  behind  three  sons, 
Bhairaon  Prasad,  Hannuram  and  Ramprasad  Bhairaon  Prasad 
added  two  more  villages,  Jhilmili  and  Ghuru,  to  the  ancestral 
estate,  so  that  there  are  now  27  villages  held  by  the  family. 
Hannuram  was  in  1 888  granted  a  certificate  by  the  Chief  Com- 
missioner for  his  liberality  in  helping  the  poor  of  his  neighbour- 
hood by  providing  them  with  employment  during  the  recent 
scarcity.  There  are  now  to  representatives  of  the  family', 
namely,  Lachhmiprasfid  and  his  two  younger  brothers,  who 
live  at  Ratanpur,  Pyarelal  and  his  three  brothers  and  one 
nephew  who  live  at  Sis,  and  Baluram  and  his  brother  Hari- 
ram  who  live  at  Matiari. 

94.    The  present   representatives  of  the    Kargi   family 
are   Khushial  Singh  and    his   younger 

lanwur  families.  ^  o 

brother  Narrotam  Singh,  of  whom  the 
former  is  a  Darbari.  They  claim  a  common  origin  with  the 
zamindari  families  of  Pendra,  Kenda,  Matin  and  Uprora. 
The  two  brothers  jointly  own  the  Kargi  taluk  comprising  32 
villages,  the  acquisition  of  which  they  ascribe  to  a  deed  of 
bravery  performed  by  one  of  their  ancestors.  A  member  of 
the  family  having  shot  155  tigers  besides  other  wild  animals 
with  a  favourite  gun,  shot  his  156th  tiger  with  the  same 
gun    when   going    to    fetch  pan    for    the   Ratanpur  Raja,  in 


LEADING    FAMILIES.  I2'3 

whose  service  he  was,  from  a  pan  bdri  where  the  animal  lay. 
An  old  gun  is  still  worshipped  in  the  family  and  pointed  out 
in  proof  of  the  deed,     The  family  is  heavily  in  debt. 

Another  family  of  Tanwars,  which  deserves  mention,  is 
that  of  which  Thakur  Ujiar  Singh  of  mauza  Kori  near  Kota 
and  his  younger  brother  Ramnath  Singh  and  cousin  Bhopal 
Singh  are  the  present  representatives.  They  are  the  descen- 
dants of  Durjan  Singh,  younger  brother  of  the  great-grand- 
father of  the  present  minor  zamlndar  of  Kenda.  It  is  said 
that  Durjan  Singh  was  granted  12  villages  for  his  maintenance 
by  his  elder  brother,  but  that  as  he  paid  the  jatnd  of  those 
villages  to  the  Raja  of  Ratanpur,  ihey  were  included  in  the 
khdlsa  on  the  advent  of  the  British  rule.  Four  of  these  vil- 
lages were,  it  is  stated,  included  in  Government  jungle  at  the 
time  of  Mr.  Chisholm's  settlement,  the  malguzar  at  the  time 
having  declared  them  waste  thinking  that  he  would  thereby 
escape  assessment.  There  are  now  only  8  villages  including 
Kori  held  by  the  family.  The  family  is  indebted.  Thakur 
Ujiar  Singh  is  a  Darbari  and  a  Local  Board  member, 

The  Sarkhon  family  is  also  connected  with  the  zamindars 
of  the  District.  They  claim  to  be  descended  from  the  same 
ancestor  as  the  Champa  zamlndar.  They  hold  the  following 
7  villages  : — (i)  Sarkhon,  (2)  Tendubhata,  (3)  Khaira,  (4) 
Naila,  (5)  Sonaidlhi,  (6)  Birkona,  (7)  Pali,  of  which  Khaira 
and  Pali  are  held  in  superior  proprietary  right  and  the  rest 
in  malguzari  right.  The  present  representative  of  the  family 
is  Keshari  Singh,  who  enjoys  a  seat  in  the  Darbar. 

The  Pantora  family  claims  a  common  descent  with  the 
family  of  the  Korba  zamlndar.  It  is  said  that  the  Pantora 
taluk,  which  formerly  comprised  23  villages,  was  given  as  a 
reward  to  one  Baj  Rai,  younger  brother  of  Moti  Rai,  who  is  the 
ancestor  of  the  Korba  zamlndar's  family,  by  a  HaihayavansI 
Raja  of  Ratanpur  for  military  services  rendered  to  him  Four 
of  the  villages  are  said  to  have  been  taken  away  and  included 
in  the  Government  forest  at  the  time  of  Mr.  Chisholm's 
settlement  and  the  remaining  19  were  recorded  in  the  name 


124  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

i)l  Bliau  Siiii-h,  graiicJiather  of  the  present  representative  Ajlt 
Singh.     Subsequently    Bhao   Singh,   it    is    said,  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  certain  Htigalion,  took  a  loan    of    Rs.  IIOO    from 
Bishfil  Singh's    family  at    Akaltara   and    mortgaged    all    the 
villages   as    security.     The    loan  swelled   with    interest  and 
Bhao  Singh  could  not  repay  it.     So  in  1871   all    the  villages 
went  over  to  the  Akaltara  family  and  Bhao  Singh  had  not  a 
single  village  left  in  his   family.     His    grandson    Ajit   Singh 
now  lives  by    cultivation  :  but  his  uncle  Atbal  Singh,  who  is 
separate  from  him,  still  holds  one  of  the   19  villages  named 
Baksara  for  his  maintenance,  paying  only  its  land  revenue  to 
the  Akaltara  family. 

95.  The   muafidar  of  Malkharoda  is   a    Raj-Gond  and 
belongs  to  a  family  which  is  said  to  have 

(Jond  families.  .    .       ,,  r  -r^  i        t      .1 

ongmally  come  from  Deogarh.  In  the 
Sambalpur  Settlement  Report  of  1891  the  estate  is  described 
as  follows: — 

'This  estate  is   a   remnant  of  a    zamlndari  (known  as 
'  Bargarh  )  which  was  confiscated  for  rebellion    in  1832  and 

*  amalgamated  with  the  Raigarh  Feudatory  State.     The  tract 

*  now  known  as  Malkharoda  was  restored  to  the  family  in 
'  1844  on  a  tenure  which  was  in  1867  made  revenue  free  in 
'  perpetuity.  At  the  settlement  of  1867  it  was  treated  as  if 
'not   included    in    the  zamlndaris  of  the  District  and  village 

*  jainds  were  assessed  in  detail  in  the  procedure  followed  in 
'  the  kltalsa.' 

The  present  representative  of  the  family  is  a  minor 
named  Lai  Bahadur  Singh.  As  his  adoptive  father  Rajpal 
Singh  was  adopted  by  the  zamlndarin  of  Phuljhar,  he  now 
owns  both  the  estates  of  Malkharoda  and  Phuljhar  in  the 
Raipur  District.  He  is  being  educated  at  the  Raipur  Raj- 
kumar  College 

The  Raj-Gond  family  of  Birra  claims  its  origin  from  a 
zamlndari  family  in  the  Chanda  District  It  is  stated  that 
owing  to  family  quarrels  one  of  the  descendants  of  the  zamln- 
dari family,   named   Dhurwa,   left   his   ancestral   home  and 


LEADING    FAMILIES,  12$ 

settled  at  Kauria  in  the  Raipur  District,  which  zamliidari  still 
continues  in  his  family,  One  of  the  great-grandsons  of 
Dhurwa  named  Johar  Rai  is  said  to  have  subsequently 
changed  his  residence  to  mauza  Birra  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil  and 
there  acquired  by  rendering  military  service  to  the  Raja  of 
Ratanpur  the  following  five  ildkas  comprising  about  50 
villages: — (i)  Karnod,  (2j  Odekera,  (3)  Hasaud,  (4)  half  of 
Kikirda,  and  (5)  Seor.  But  at  the  time  of  Mr.  Chisholm's 
settlement  only  16  villages  were  recorded  in  the  name  of  Johar 
Rai's  grandson  Umed  Singh,  vis.,  10  in  malguzari  right  and 
6  in  superior  proprietary  right.  These  villages  still  continue 
in  the  possession  of  the  family.  The  present  representative  of 
the  family  is  Madan  Mohan  Singh,  a  minor  of  about  13  years 
of  age.  The  family  claims  to  be  Raj-Gond  of  the  Garha- 
Mandla  stock.  It  is  connected  by  blood  with  the  Phuljhar 
and  Kauria  zamlndari  families  in  the  Raipur  District  and 
by  marriage  with  many  of  the  Gond  chiefs  and  zamlndars. 
96.  The  family  of  the  Akaltara  malguzars  traces  its 
^,.      ,     .,.  origin  to  Sardar  Singh  and  Plla  Singh, 

Other  families.  °    ' 

who  were  two  brothers.  These  brothers 
are  said  to  have  been  originally  residents  of  Mewar  in  the 
Jodhpur  State  of  Rajputana.  It  is  said  that  the  brothers 
while  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jagannath  took  service  with  the 
Raja  of  Surguja  and  afterwards  with  the  Raja  of  Ratanpur. 
They  claim  mauza  Pondi  as  their  original  village.  At  the 
time  of  the  first  settlement  the  representative  of  the  family  was 
Sardar  Singh  and  he  was  in  possession  of  6  villages  of  which 
he  obtained  pattds  from  Major  Elliot  in  1858.  Subse- 
quently, it  is  said,  Sardar  Singh  took  up  the  business  of 
money-lending  and  considerably  enlarged  his  estate  by  pur- 
chasing 45  villages  including  a  daniaini  village.  Thus,  the 
estate  now  in  the  possession  of  the  family  consists  of  5 1  villages 
mostly  situated  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil.  Sardar  Singh  and  his 
younger  brother  Garur  Singh  were  Darbaris  and  the  former 
also  enjoyed  an  exemption  under  the  Arms  Act.  Of  the  present 
leading   representatives   of    the    family  Manmohan   Singh, 


126  BILASPUR.       POPULATION. 

grandson  of  Sardar  Singh,  is  a  Darbari  and  Bishal  Singh,  son 
of  Garur  Singh,  is  exempt  under  the  Arm?  Act.  The  family 
claims  to  be  Suryavansi  RanaChhatris  of  Bharadwaj  ^(?/m / 
but  they  are  generally  known  as  Daraihas'  which  is  said  to  be 
a  corruption  of  Dargainyas  meaning  residents  of  Dargaon  in 
the  Raipur  District  where  some  people  of  this  caste  are  said 
to  have  gone  and  settled. 

The  most  prominent  of  the  Muhammadan  families  is  that 
of  Akbar  Khan.  It  traces  its  descent  from  one  Muhammad 
Khan,  the  great-grandfather  of  Akbar  Khan.  Muhammad 
Khan,  and  after  his  death,  his  son  Rahim  Khan  are  said  to 
have  been  employed  as  Subahdars  of  troops  under  the 
Bhonsla  Raj  of  Nagpur.  It  is  said  that  as  a  reward  for  good 
services  rendered  to  the  Raj  while  in  charge  of  a  military 
garrison  at  Bilaspur,  Rahim  Khan  received  the  grant  of 
Dighori  and  Okhar  circles,  which  comprised  38  villages.  He 
retained  the  villages  until  they  were  actually  settled  in  his 
name  by  the  British  Government.  On  his  death  the  estate 
was  divided  between  his  two  sons,  Abdul  Hamid  Khan  and 
Abdul  Majld  Khan,  who  added  some  more  malguzari  villages 
and  a  damdmi  village.  Akbar  Khan,  the  present  representa- 
tive of  the  family,  is  the  son  of  Abdul  Hamid  Khan  and 
holds  the  whole  estate  consisting  of  48  villages.  He  has  a 
seat  in  the  Darbar.  The  family  has  now  settled  in  the 
village  of  Sargaon  in  the  Mungeli  tahsil.  It  is  somewhat 
indebted. 

*  Mr.   Wills  states  that   the   name   is  really  derived  from  dCvi,  a  kept- 
woman. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
AGRICULTURE. 

SOILS. 

97.  The  soils  of  the  Bilaspur  District  vary  between  two 
extremes  which  are  locally  known  by 
the  names  of  kanhdr  and  viatdsi. 
Kanhdr  is  a  deep  clay  soil  of  blue-black  or  brown-black 
colour  which  is  said  to  be  geologically  composed  of  the 
detritus  of  trap.  Matdsi  is  a  light-coloured  soil  varying  in 
colour  from  white  to  brownish-yellow  which  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  formed  from  the  detritus  of  crystalline  rock. 
Between  these  two  extremes  there  is  a  middle  soil  generally 
called  dorsd  or  doniattd  which  means  soil  of  two  tinges 
{do-rasd)  or  composed  of  two  kinds  of  earth  {do-7>iattd).  As 
its  name  implies  it  is  a  mixture  of  kanhdr  and  matdsi  and  for 
settlement  purposes  has  been  divided  into  two  classes.  First 
grade  dorsd  is  a  dark-brown  clay  soil  which  in  many  respects 
resembles  kanJidr  which  predominates  over  viatdsi  in  its 
composition.  Second-grade  dorsd  is  a  light  brown  soil  in  the 
composition  of  which  matdsi  predominates  over  kanhdr. 
Besides  these  principal  soils  there  is  a  small  area  of  very 
inferior  soil  called  bJidtd.  The  soil  takes  its  name,  which 
literally  means  *  a  ridge, '  from  the  position  in  which  it  is 
found.  It  consists  of  a  slight  sprinkling  of  sandy  soil  over 
gravel  and  will  grow  nothing  but  sesamum  and  the  lightest 
kinds  of  millet.  On  the  banks  of  the  numerous  rivers  and 
streams  which  drain  the  District  are  found  deposits  of  alluvial 
soil  known  here,  as  elsewhere,  by  the  name  of  kachhdr. 
This  soil  consists  of  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand.  In  its 
better  form  in  which  clay  predominates  over  sand  it  is  known 
as  pdl  kachhdr.  In  its  worse  form  where  sand  laigely 
predominates  over  clay,  the  soil  is  known  as  patpar  kachhdr. 
Kanhdr  and   first-grade  dorsd  will  grow  any  kind  of  crop, 


ta^  BILASPUR.      AGRICULTURE. 

and  when  sown  with  rice  are  usually  double-cropped  with 
linseed  or  rabi  pulses.  Second-grade  dorsd  will  grow  rice^ 
linseed,  rubi  pulses,  the  lighter  millets  and  castor,  sesamum, 
arhar  {Cajanns  Indicus),  and  occasionally  wheat  as  single 
crops.  When  sown  with  rice  it  will  in  good  years,  or  in 
low-lying  positions,  bear  a  second  crop  of  linseed  or  of  the 
lighter  rabi  pulses.  Matdsi  will  grow  nothing  but  rice, 
the  lighter  millets,  and  sesamum,  but  in  good  years  or  with 
irrigation  its  crops  of  rice  are  excellent ;  it  is,  however, 
very  susceptible  to  damage  from  any  diminution  of  the 
normal  rainfall.  Pal  kachliar  is  principally  suitable  for 
garden -crops  and  groves.  Patpar  kachhdr  is  principally 
found  in  the  beds  of  streams  where  it  is  generally  cropped 
with  melons  and  sweet  potatoes.  Mungell,  the  western 
tahsil,  is  by  far  the  most  fertile  of  the  three,  and  almost 
entirely  consists  of  kanhdr  and  first-grade  dorsd.  The  east- 
ern tahsil  of  Janjgir  principally  consists  of  matdsi  and  second- 
grade  dorsd.  The  central  tahsil  of  Bilaspur  forms  the  point 
of  transition  between  the  two  systems  of  soil.  In  its 
western  half  the  formation  of  the  soil  approximates  to  that 
of  Mungell,  and  in  its  eastern  half  to  that  of  Janjgir. 

STATISTICS  OF  CULTIVATION. 

98.  During  the  last  few  years  the  progress   of  settle-, 
meiit    operations    in   this  District  has 

btatibtics  of  cultivation. 

caused  much  dislocation  of  the  work 
of  the  land  records  staff,  and  the  statistics  which  will  give 
the  best  idea  of  the  cropping  of  the  District  are  those  of 
1904-05,  a  normal  year  before  attestation  caused  any  inter- 
ference with  the  ordinary  routine.  The  District  as  now 
constituted  comprises  a  total  area  of  4,867,232  acres  of 
which  20  per  cent-  is  comprised  in  the  unsurveyed  forests  of 
the  zamlndaris,  and  an  additional  7  per  cent,  is  included  in 
the  Government  forest  reserves.  The  balance  of  3,555,668 
acres  represents  the  area  for  which  agricultural  returns 
exist.     Of  this   area    3,301,300   acres  or    93    percent,  are 


CROPS.  -129 

culturable  and  1,767,265  acres  or  50  per  cent,  were  in 
1904-05  occupied  for  cultivation.  The  large  unoccupied  area 
is  to  be  found  in  the  northern  zamlndaris  of  which  even  the 
area  surveyed  largely  consists  of  forest.  The  kJidlsa  of  the 
District  is  mostly  denuded  of  forest  and  is  densely  populated 
and  closely  cultivated;  and  in  the  year  1 905-06  (separate 
statistics  for  the  khdha  in  1904-05  are  not  available)  the  area 
there  occupied  for  cultlvalion  amounted  to  1,218,222  acres 
or  6'^  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  and  72  per  cent,  of  the 
culturable  area  ( 1, 688^999  acres).  In  .1904-05  of  the  total 
occupied  area  of  the  District  1,521,207  acres  or  %6  per  cent, 
were  actually  cropped,  and  of  the  net  cropped  area  324,080 
acres  or  2 1  per  cent,  were  double-cropped. 

CROPS. 

99.  Rice  is  by  far  the  most  important  crop  of  the  District 
and  enormously  outweighs  all  others. 

Statistics  of  crops. 

In  1904-05  it  covered  1,025,141  acres 
or  6"]  per  cent,  of  the  net  cropped  area.  Next  in  importance 
sed  longo  intervallo  comes  kodon  {Paspaluin  scrobiculatuni) 
which  in  1904-05  covered  140,125  acres  or  9  per  cent- 
of  the  net  cropped  area.  This  prolific  millet  has  grown 
considerably  in  popularity  since  the  famine  years,  as  it 
requires  little  rain,  and  is  looked  on  as  a  sort  of  insur- 
ance against  the  failure  of  the  rice  crop.  It  will 
grow  in  any  soil  from  kanhdr  to  bhdtd  and  is  generally 
sown  as  a  mixture  with  arhar  {Caj'anus  Indicus)  in  the 
better  soils,  and  with  sesamum  in  the  poorer  soils.  In 
kanhdr  and  first-grade  dorsd  it  is  largely  used  as  a  rotation- 
crop  for  wheat,  and  in  these  soils  100  times  the  seed  is 
looked  upon  by  the  people  as  an  averagely  good  yield. 
Wheat  in  1904-05  covered  103,893  acres  or  7  per  cent,  of 
the  net  cropped  area.  It  is  of  most  importance  in  the 
Mungeli  tahsiland  in  the  west  of  the  Bilaspur  tahsil.  In  the 
Mungeli  tahsil  the  area  under  wheat  in  1904-05  amounted 
to  64JS6  acres  or  18  per  cent,  of  the  net  cropped  area.  The 
balance  of  the  net  cropped  area  is  mainly  sown   with  linseed 


IJO  BILASPUR.       AGRICULTURE. 

and  miscellaneous  rahl  pulses  principally  urad  {Phaseolus 
radiatus),  liura  (Lalhyrus  sativus),  balard  {t^isum  salivum), 
niasur  (Etvuui  lens)  and  gram.  The  areas  so  cropped  were  in 
1904-05  respectively  153,927  acres  and  297,670  acres.  But 
a  very  large  proportion  of  these  varieties  is  grown  as  a 
second  crop  after  rice,  and  an  exact  estimate  of  the  area  under 
each  of  them  grown  as  a  single  crop  cannot  be  given.  It 
may  be  taken  however  that  linseed  and  miscellaneous  pulses 
between  them  cov-er  practically  the  whole  of  the  area  double- 
cropped.  Between  them  therefore  in  1904-05  they  covered 
as  single  crops  approximately  127,517  acres  or  8  per  cent,  of 
the  net  cropped  area.  The  area  under  linseed  and  miscella- 
neous neZ*/ fluctuates  largely  from  year  to  year,  as  they  are, 
whether  grown  as  single  or  double  crops,  largely  dependent 
on  good  rain  at  the  end  of  September  or  the  beginning  of 
October.  In  1905-06  when  the  monsoon  ceased  early  the 
total  area  under  linseed  and  rabi  pulses  was  only  20,019 
acres  as  compared  with  451,597  acres  in  1904-05. 

100.  Rice  is  almost  universally  sown  broadcast,  trans- 
plantation being  only  practised  in  a  few 
iMethods  of  oiitivation.  localities  such  as  Ratanpur,  Mallar  and 
Bilaspur  itself,  and  there  only  to  a  very 
small  extent  and  by  exceptionally  enterprising  cultivators. 
There  are  three  methods  of  sowing  it.  The  first  is  locally 
known  as  khurni  sowing,  or  sowing  in  land  which  has  been 
ploughed  once  or  twice  before  the  monsoon  breaks.  The 
second  is  known  as  batar  sowing,  or  sowing  in  land  which 
is  ploughed  for  the  first  time  when  the  monsoon  breaks.  In 
both  of  these  methods  the  seed  is  broadcasted,  in  the  case  of 
khurni  sowings,  over  ground  which  has  been  prepared 
before  the  rains  break,  and  in  the  case  of  batar  sowing,  over 
ground  which  is  ploughed  immediately  before  sowing  once 
or  twice  according  to  the  amount  of  grass  and  weeds  in  the 
field.  In  rare  cases  when  the  field  is  exceptionally  free  from 
weeds  the  seed  is  scattered  over  unploughed  land  in  batar  sow- 
ings.    Whatever  be  tlie  state  of  the  srround  before  the  seed  is 


CROPS.  131 

scattered  over  It,  the  latter  is  ploughed  in  by  a  final  ploughing. 
The  third  method  is  called  sowing  in  lehl.     It  is  adopted    for 
late  sowing  when  the  ground  has  been  well  saturated  by  the 
first  fall  of  the  monsoon.     It  consists  in  ploughing  up  the 
wet  ground  with  an  inch    or   two  of  water  standing  on   it 
into  thick  mud  until  all   the   water  is  absorbed  in  the  soil. 
Then  seed,  which  has  been  made  to  germinate  artificially  by 
being  soaked  for  24  hours   in  a  pot  full  of  water  and  then 
covered  over   inside   the    house   with  a   heap   of  straw   to 
exclude  light  and   produce  warmth,  is  sown  broadcast  over 
the  field.     In  this  case  the  seed  is  not  ploughed   in.     Sowing 
after  one  or  two  ploughings  in   batar  is  the  method  most 
generally  adopted,  because,  in  this   District,  where  rice  land 
forms  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  total  cropped  area,  few 
even  of  the  wealthier  tenants  and  malguzars  have  sufficiently 
frequent  opportunities  of  ploughing  their  land  before    the 
rains  break  to  be  able  to  sow  all  of  it  in  khurrd.     The  latter 
method  when  it  is  practicable  is  by  far  the  most  profitable, 
owing  to  the  facts  that  the  upturned  earth  becomes  more 
friable  through  the  action  of  the  air  and  the  sun,  the  manure 
becomes  more  perfectly  amalgamated  with  the  loosened  soil, 
the  rain,  when  it  comes,  more  rapidly  permeates  it,  and  the 
seed  can  be  got  into  the  ground  more  speedily  than  if  the 
other  methods  are  employed.     Lehl  sowing  is  only  adopted 
in  fields  which  cannot  be  sown  promptly,  and  is  avoided  as 
much  as  possible,  because  the  plants  so  sown  are  very  apt  to 
be  drowned  out  by  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  soon   after  sowing- 
time.     Whichever  method  of  sowing    is  adopted,   the  rice 
plants,  about  four  or  five  weeks  after  sowing  time,  when  they 
have  attained  a  height  of  a  foot  or  so,  are  thinned  by  driving 
a  plough  through  the  field  at  right  angles  to  the  lines  which 
haye  been  made  by  the  ploughings  preliminary  to  sowing. 
This  method    of     thinning  is  locally    known  as    bidsi.     It 
requires  a  fairly  large  amount   of  water  in  the  field,  and  is 
usually  practised  just  after  the  second  heavy  fall  of  rain  at 
the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August.     Its  performance 


1^2  nil.ASPI-R.       AGRICULTURE. 

at  the  proper  time  is  of  critical  importance  to  the  rice  crop, 
and  its  postponement  owing  to  unseasonable  want  of  rain  is 
very  detrimental.  After  the  plants  have  fully  germinated 
and  until  buht  has  been  performed,  the  plough-cattle  during 
their  spells  of  rest  are  allowed  to  graze  on  them,  as  aiding 
in  the  process  of  thinning.  A  few  days  after  biasi  has  been 
performed,  when  the  plants  are  beginning  to  revive  from 
the  uprooting  which  they  have  received,  a  log  of  wood, 
known  locally  as  a  knpar,  which  is  ^oked  to  a  pair  of  oxen 
or  buffaloes,  and  on  which  the  driver  stands,  is  dragged 
across  tiie  fields.  The  object  of  this  is  to  press  the  roots 
exposed  by  hinsi  back  into  the  earth  so  that  they  can  send 
up  more  shoots,  to  level  the  irregularities  of  the  ground 
caused  by  the  plough,  and  to  submerge  the  weeds  which 
have  grown  up  with  the  rice,  but  which,  unlike  it,  cannot 
stand  immersion.  When  all  these  operations  have  been 
completed,  a  certain  amount  of  the  water  in  the  field  is 
allowed  to  run  off,  and  the  crop  requires  a  short  spell  of 
comparatively  fine  weather  to  recover  from  the  drastic  treat- 
ment which  it  has  received.  When  the  water  has  been 
reduced  to  the  proper  level,  the  field  sluices  are  blocked  up 
in  readiness  for  the  mid-August  fall  and  are  not  re-opened 
except  in  the  case  of  very  excessive  rain,  or  for  the  purpose 
of  irrigation,  till  the  last  half  of  October.  Throughout  the 
last  half  of  August  and  the  first  half  of  September  the 
cultivator  likes  as  much  rain  as  he  can  get  and  considers  four 
good  falls  essential.  During  this  period  the  rice  is  weeded 
twice  or  even  oftener.  To  produce  a  full  crop  another  good 
fall  at  the  beginning  of  October  is  required  after  which  the 
rice  needs  comparative!}'  fine  weather  to  ripen.  The  critical 
periods  are  the  end  of  July,  the  latter  half  of  August,  and 
from  the  middle  of  September  to  the  middle  of  October.  At 
these  periods  good  rain  is  essential,  and  any  diminution  of 
the  supply  of  water  at  once  results  in  a  diminished  outturn. 

The  earlier  varieties  of  rice  are  reaped  at  the  end  of 
October,  but   the  harvesting  of  the  heavier  rices  goes  on  in 


CROPS.  r33 

a  good  year  until  well  into  December.  The  cultivator 
manures  as  much  of  his  rice-land  as  he  possibly  can  with 
cattle-dung  and  ashes,  for  manure  is  essential  to  a  good  rice 
crop.  The  bulk  of  it  is  employed  in  the  fields  composed  of 
kanhdr  and  dorsd,  which  require  much  more  regular  manur- 
ing than  W(t/^s?,  which  will  give  very  fair  results  with  one 
manuring  in  three  years  or  so.  The  usual  allotment  of 
manure  by  a  cultivator  in  average  circumstances  is  about  four 
or  five  cartloads  to  the  acre.  This  allotment  is  really  too 
small  for  the  heavier  soils,  and  a  man  who  has  plenty  of 
cattle  or  a  small  holding  will  apply  ten  or  more  cartloads  to 
the  acre. 

lOi.  Irrigation    is    naturally    most    frequently    resorted 

to  in    the   east  of  the   District  where 
Irrigation, 

light     soils     predominate.     It    is     of 

practically  no  importance  in  the  Mungell  tahsll,  where  the 
black  clay  in  normal  years  requires  no  artificial  supply  of 
water,  and  where  the  level  character  of  the  ground  renders 
the  sources  of  supply  unable  to  protect  more  than  a  very 
limited  area.  The  sources  of  supply  are  almost  entirely 
tanks,  usually  of  no  great  size ;  and  the  value  of  irrigation  in 
this  District  principally  lies  in  the  possibility  of  rectifying 
uneven  distribution  of  the  rainfall.  The  area  which  can  be 
considered  as  protected  against  a  general  failure  of  the  mon- 
soon is  trifling.  The  tanks  are  usually  provided  with  an 
outer  reservoir  called  a  paithu,  from  which  the  water  passes 
into  the  tank  through  a  cut  in  the  upper  embankment  of  the 
latter.  The  effect  of  this  reservoir  is  to  increase  the  volume 
of  water  held  up,  and  to  enable  some  of  the  silt  to  settle 
before  the  water  passes  into  the  source  of  the  village  supply 
of  drinking  water.  When  irrigation  is  necessary,  water 
is  first  drawn  off"  from  the  pailhii  and  allowed  to  run 
into  the  fields  on  the  highest  level  which  can  be  reached. 
When  these  have  been  irrigated  and  no  more  water  can 
be  made  to  run  out  of  the  sluice,  the  tank  itself  is 
breached  at  a  lower  level  and  the  water  is  allowed  to  run 


134  nil.ASPUR.       AGRICULTURE. 

into    the    field';    which     can    he    covered     thence.       Unless 
there   are   two   or    three   tanks    in  a  village  the  breaching  of 
the  tank  itself  is  avoided,  if  at  all     possible,   in    order   to  pre- 
vent the  village  supply  of  drinking  water  from  running  short 
in  the   hot   weather.     In  many   cases  the    tank    is  the    only 
source  of  supply,  and,    if  it  fails,    water    has  to  be  brought 
from  long  distances  for  household    purposes,   and  the   cattle 
have  to  be   driven  a  long   way    to   drink.     There    is   also  a 
strong  religious   prejudice    against  the  breaching  of  a  tank  by 
a  man  who  has  made  it  himself.     A  few  of  the  fields  immedi- 
ately   adjoining  and    above  a  tank,    reservoir,  or   pond,    are 
sometimes  irrigated    by  a  basket-lift  called    a    chhapa.     This 
consists  of  a  basket  slung  between  two  pairs  of  ropes,  which 
are  held  by  two  men    sitting   facing   one  another   across  the 
sluice,  who  dip  the  basket   into  the   water   and  then  swing  it 
up  on  to  the  higher  level.     In  one  or  two  places    near  rivers, 
where  the  water  level  is  close  to  the   surface   of  the    soil, 
temporary   wells  are  used  for  irrigating    rice,   but    such   a 
practice  is  very  rare,  and  the    sinking  of  wells  is    usually 
left  to  Marars  for  the  cultivation  of  garden-crops.     The  only 
sources  of  irrigation   of   any   importance    besides    tanks    are 
nullahs,  which  in  suitable  places  are  dammed  by  the  people, 
who  run  the  water  so  held  up  into  any  fields  near  the  nullah 
which  it  will   reach.     They    usually    have  to  make  recourse 
to  the  basket-lift  to  get  all  the  water  that  they  want. 

The  area  irrigated  fluctuates  considerably  from  year  to 
year.  It  depends  partly  on  the  necessity  for  irrigation  and 
secondly  on  the  ability  of  the  tanks  to  suppl}'  water  when 
it  is  required.  In  1904-05,  when  the  early  monsoon  was 
good  and  the  tanks  filled  well,  but  when  a  long  break 
in  September  and  October  necessitated  fairly  free  recourse 
to  irrigation  in  the  tracts  where  light  soils  predominate,  the 
recorded  irrigated  area  of  the  District  as  now  constituted  was 
104,423  acres.  In  1905-06,  when,  though  irrigation  was 
badly  wanted,  the  shortage  of  the  early  monsoon  prevented 
he  tanks  from  filling,  the  recorded  area  was  only  60,319 


CROPS.  135 

acres.  In  the  good  year  of  1906-07  there  was  little  neces- 
sity for  irrigation  and  the  total  area  irrigated  was  only 
9910  acres.  In  1907-08,  when,  though  the  early  monsoon 
was  above  average,  there  was  more  necessity  than  in  1904- 
05  for  irrigation  in  September,  the  Irrigated  area  expanded 
to  140,969  acres.  The  recorded  figures  are  probably  a 
little  below  the  mark  as  the  patwari  staff  are  rather  careless 
in  recording  irrigation.  About  15  per  cent,  of  the  area  of 
rice  may  be  taken  as  capable  of  irrigation  when  the  early 
monsoon  is  sufficient  to  fill  the  village  tanks.  The  normal 
number  of  irrigation  wells,  most  of  which  are  temporary,  is 
about  3000  and  they  normally  irrigate  about  lOOO  acres  or 
about  0'33  of  an  acre  per  well-  Most  of  the  area  is  under 
sugarcane  or  garden-crops. 

'  The  only  Government  tanks  constructed  in  the  Bilas- 
pur  District  are  two  minor  tanks,  Hardi  and  Dhanras  near 
Lormi,  while  a  third  is  now  under  construction  at  Barpali 
near  Akaltara.  In  addition  to  these,  four  village  tanks  have 
been  improved  on  the  grant-in-aid  system.  The  District  is 
however  rich  in  potential  schemes  ;  canal  projects  have  been 
investigated  from  the  Hasdo  and  Son  rivers,  and  storage 
works  investigated  are  those  of  the  Maniari,  Kathotia,  Agar, 
Lilagar,  Kharun,  and  Rahan  situated  where  those  rivers 
debouch  from  the  hills;  in  addition  theKhaija  lake  about  12 
miles  north  of  Champa  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Hasdo,  and 
sites  for  several  minor  tanks  have  been  made  the  subject  of 
enquiry.  Soine  of  the  major  schemes  are  exceedingly 
promising;  the  Maniari  reservoir  (a  magnificent  storage 
basin)  would  command  the  Doab  between  the  Agar  and 
Arpa  rivers,  about  1100  square  miles,  supplemented  if 
necessary  by  the  Agar  or  Kathotia  projects  and  the  Hasdo 
(whose  mean  discharge  in  September  is  17,600  cubic  feet 
per  second  and  in  January  66^  cubic  feet  per  second)  and 
Son  canal  would  command  the  whole  area  below  the  Kanji 
and  the  eastern  Son,  an  area  of  some  500  square  miles.  A 
project  has  also  been  partially  investigated  in  the  Kawardha 


1^6  BILASPUii.      AGRICULTURE. 

'State  on  the  Utani  nullah,  a  tributary  of  the  Hanp  river  which 
'  commands  some  i  50  square  miles.  It  has  not  been  possible 
'  to  investigate  these  schemes  fully  as  the  Government  of 
'  India  considers  that  Chhattisgarh  is  sufficiently  provided  for 
'  in  the  future  by  the  Tandula  and  Mahanadi  canals,  and  has 
'declined  to  continue  the  spending  of  further  sums  in  the 
•  investigation  of  major  projects  in  Bilaspur.  Meantime  the 
'  rivers  are  being  gauged  and  hydrological  data  collected  for 
'  the  future.  It  is  not  yet  possible  to  gauge  the  future  of 
'  irrigation  in  Bilaspur  from  experience,  as  the  Hardi  tank 
'is  the  only  one  which  has  been  working  for  more  than  one 
'  year,  but  on  the  higher  lying  lands  at  any  rate  the  people  seem 
'  to  be  quite  alive  to  the  advantages  of  an  assured  water-supply 
'  for  irrigation.  Kharif  in  1907-08  was  freely  irrigated  when 
'  the  necessity  called  for  it,  the  people  willingly  paying  Rs.  2 
'  per  acre  water  rate.  Rabi  irrigation  is  in  its  earliest 
'  infancy,  but  signs  are  not  wanting  that  the  cultivation  of 
'irrigated  wheat  and  sugarcane  is  likely  to  expand.'  ^ 

102.  When    the    District   gets    its   normal   quantity  of 
October  rain  an  after-crop    of  linseed 

Double-cropping.  j         ;  •        i  •  •  .      r  .u 

and  rabi  pulses  is  grown  in  most  of  the 
kanlidr  and  dorsd  1  rice  fields,  and  in  dorsd  II  in  level  and 
low-lying  positions.  The  method  of  sowing  is  very  simple. 
The  seed  is  scattered  broadcast  among  the  standing  rice 
plants  just  before  or  just  after  the  time,  about  the  third  week 
of  October,  when  the  water  which  remains  standing  in  the 
fields  is  finally  drained  away.  The  amount  of  moisture 
necessary  for  sowing  varies  with  the  kind  of  seed  sown. 
Linseed  and  urad  {^Phaseolus  radiatus)  cannot  stand  soaking, 
and  are  sown  after  the  water  has  been  run  off ;  baturd  {Pisiim 
sativKiii),  gram  and  masur  (Ei-i'ian  lens)  are  generally  sown 
a  few  hours  before  the  water  is  run  off;  and  tiura  {LatJiyrus 
sativiis)  wliich  has  a  very  hard  husk,  is  allowed  to  soak  in 
the  fields  for  24  hours  before  the  sluices  are  opened.  It  is 
at  this  juncture  that  one  of  the  uses  of  the  kopar  makes  itself 

*  From  a  note  by  Mr.  F.  J.  C.  Adams,  Irrigation  Department. 


cRors.  137 

manifest,  for  in  a  field  wliere  it  has  been  properly  applied  the 
water  runs  oflf  evenly  and  finds  no  depressions  in  which  to 
settle  and  rot  the  seed.  The  after-crop  grows  up  for  about  a 
month  or  so  in  the  shade,  of  the  rice  plants,  which  protect 
the  young  rain  seedlings  from  the  rays  of  the  hot  October 
sun.  After  the  rice  is  reaped  in  November  the  plants 
are  strong  enough  to  make  their  own  way,  and  the  heat 
of  the  sun  has  been  reduced  to  proportions  suitable  for  the 
spring  crops.  This  second  crop  after  rice,  which  is  locally 
known  as  jiterd,  considerably  enhances  the  value  of  the 
heavier  soils,  for  it  entails  no  labour  except  that  involved  in 
sowing  and  harvesting  (which  latter  operation  in  the  case 
of  the  pulses  merely  consists  in  gathering  the  plants  by 
hand,  no  cutting  being  necessary),  and  is  generally  estimated 
to  amount  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  general  productiveness  of  the 
fields  where  it  is  sown.  If  it  be  sown  after  good  October  rain 
it  will  give  results  with  no  further  fall,  and  with  one  good  fall 
of  winter  rain  will  give  a  practically  full  crop.  In  some  tracts, 
principally  round  Ratanpur,  the  better  classes  of  rice-land 
in  low-lying  positions  are  sometimes  reploughed  after  the 
rice  has  been  reaped,  and  are  resown  v/ith  wheat  and  barle}'. 
Crops  so  sown,  however,  are  not  included  by  the  people 
within  the  term  uterd,  which  is  restricted  to  crops  sown 
withaut  reploughing.  The  latter  are  obviously  precarious 
and  depend  entirely  on  seasonable  October  rain.  Irrigation 
as  practised  in  Chhattlsgarh,  although  it  may  save  the  rice- 
crop,  is  of  no  use  for  utcrd,  if  the  field  to  which  it  is  applied 
has  dried  up  before  the  water  comes  to  it.  If  some  moisture 
remains  in  the  field  which  irrigation  can  supplement,  it  is  of 
benefit  to  the  iiterd,  but  even  tiien  is  of  ver}'  partial  efficacy 
as  a  substitute  for  October  rain.  With  natural  rainfall  the 
whole  of  the  village  lands  get  water  at  the  same  time,  and 
therefore  there  is  no  percolation  of  water  from  one  watered 
block  to  the  expanse  of  dry  land  surrounding  it.  Further- 
more, the  water-supply  given  by  natural  rain  is  much  more 
plentiful  and  has    time  to  soak  deep    into  the   ground;  and 


138  BILASFUH.       AGKICULTURK. 

while  llie    rain    is  actually    falling,  the    sky    is  overcast  and 

there  is  little  loss  of  moisture  from  evaporation.     Hy  recourse 

to  irrigation  on    the  other  hand  a  man  does  not  get  his  field 

full  of  standing  water  for  mure  than  a   very  short    period 

hardly  ever  more  than  24  hours.     After  that  the   water   has 

to  be  run  olT  to  give  the  field  below  it  its  share ;  and  all  the 

time    that    the    water  is    standing   in    the    field  it  is  by  day 

exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  (for    this    reason    the    water 

is    usually    passed   on  from    one    field    to    another    in    the 

evening).       Hence    the     area     sown    with     second    crops 

fluctuates    largely    from  year    to  year  (f.^.,   in   1904-05    a 

year   of    fairly    plentiful  rain    there   were   in    this    District 

324,080   acres   double-cropped,  whereas  in  1905-06,    a  year 

when  there   was  practically  no   rain  at  all    in    October,  the 

area  was   only  205,269  acres). 

103.  Besides  rice    the  principal   autumn  crop  is   kodon 

(Paspaliini     scrobunlatmn),  which     is 
Kodon.  ^        ^  " 

largely  used   by  the    poorer  classes  as 

a  food-grain    and,  except    sesamum,    and  occasionally    urad 

{Pliaseo/iis  radiatus),  is  practically  the  only  crop  which  bJiata 

and  unembanked  w^r/^fj/ will  grow.     It  is  also  grown   largely 

in  the  better  soils  in  poor  positions,  and  in  wheat-land  is  used 

with  arhar  {Cajanns  Indicus)  as  a  rotation-crop  to  prevent  the 

exhaustion  of  the  soil.     It  is  sown  in  the  latter  half  of  June 

or  the  beginning  of  July  concurrently  with  the  rice-sowings. 

It  is  broadcasted  over  land  which  has  been  ploughed  once  or 

twice  after  the  rains  break,  and  is  then  ploughed  in  by  driving 

the  plough  over  it  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  original 

furrows.     In  light  soils  it  is  usually  admixed  with  sesamum, 

and  in  the  heavier  soils  with  arhar,  the  seed  of  which  is  mixed 

with  that  of  the  kodon,    and  which   require   no   additional 

cultivation.     About  three  to  five  weeks  from  germination  the 

kodon  is  thinned  by  raking  it  over  with  a  sort  of  harrow  called  a 

datdn\  which  consists  of  a  log  studded  with  eight  or  nine  teeth, 

which  is  yoked  to  a  pair  of  oxen.     The  effect  of  this  process  is 

to  remove  the   congestion  caused  by  the  luxuriant  growth  of 


CROPS.  139 

the  broadcasted  seed,  and  to  uproot  a  large  proportion  of  the 
weeds  which  grow  up  with  the  crop.  The  plants  which 
survive  the  process  benefit  by  the  additional  space  and  throw 
out  a  large  number  of  fresh  shoots.  After  tliinning,  the 
kodon  crop  is  weeded  once  or  twice  in  the  latter  part  of 
August  and  the  beginning  of  September,  and  then  requires 
no  further  attention  till  harvest-time.  It  is  reaped  in  October 
or  November  accordingly  as  it  belongs  to  the  earlier  or  the 
later  variety.  Sesamum  of  the  k/iarlf  v^nQiy  ripens  slightly 
earlier  than  kodon  and  is  reaped  early  in  October,  but  arhar 
flowers  in  the  cold  weather  and  is  not  harvested  till  February 
or  March.  Sesamum  when  grown  pure  as  a  kharlf  oxo^  is 
sown  broadcast  in  the  same  manner  as  kodon  at  the  end  of 
June  or  the  beginning  of  July  when  the  cultivator  has 
completed  his  rice  and  kodon  sowings.  It  is  not  weeded  or 
thinned.  When  grown  as  a  rabi  crop  it  is  sown  from  the 
beginning  to  the  middle  of  August  and  is  harvested  in 
December. 

104.  The  principal  spring  crop  is  wheat.  It  is  sown  from 
the  end  of  October  till  early  in  Decem- 

VVheat. 

ber  in  ground  which,  when  unembanked, 
has  usually  been  ploughed  three  or  four  times  before  the  final 
ploughing  with  which  the  seed  is  sown.  The  cultivator  begins 
to  plough  his  wheat-land  in  the  latter  half  of  August  when  he 
has  completed  the  thinning  of  his  rice  and  kodon.  He  will 
usually  give  the  land  two  more  ploughings  at  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember or  the  beginning  of  October  and  tlien  gives  it  a  final 
ploughing  at  the  end  of  October  or  in  November  when  the  seed 
is  sown.  If  a  field  is  specially  weedy  it  may  be  given  as  many 
as  five  preliminary  ploughings.  The  seed  is  sown  in  lines  at 
the  time  of  the  final  ploughing  by  being  dropped  through  a 
hollow  bamboo,  called  a  tord,  which  is  inserted  in  a  hole  drilled 
through  the;/rwor  wooden  share  of  the  plougli.  This  bamboo 
stands  upright  between  the  oxen  and  the  ploughman,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  boUomlcss  wooden  cup,  called  p  paUd, 
which  fits  over  the  top  of  it,  and  into  which  a  second  man 


140  BILASPUR.      AGRICULTURE. 

who  walks  beside  the  plough  drops  the  seed.  The  latter  falls 
into  the  furrow  behind  the  toe  of  the  share,  the  heel  of  which 
passes  over  it  ;  and  on  the  witlidrawal  of  the  heel  of  the 
share,  as  tiie  plough  passes  on,  the  earth  drops  back  over  the 
seed.  Wheat  is  never  manured  or  weeded,  and  after  sowing 
until  it  is  harvested  it  receives  no  further  attention  beyond 
watching  and  occasionally,  in  fields  near  the  road,  fencing 
with  thorns,  to  protect  it  from  cattle  and  wild  animals.  To 
the  writer's  knowledge  there  is  only  one  place  in  the  District 
where  wheat  is  irrigated  after  sowing  (and  there  the  practice 
is  an  innovation  consequent  on  the  construction  of  a  Govern- 
nient  irrigation  reservoir),  though  occasionally  a  dry  field 
near  a  tank  is  watered  before  sowing-time  to  give  the 
moisture  necessary  for  germination.  As  the  seed  is  sown  in 
furrows  which  get  down  to  the  moisture  in  the  ground  after 
it  sinks  below  the  surface,  irrigation  is  able  to  produce 
sueeessful  germination,  although  the  moisture  so  given  would 
not  be  enough  if  the  seed  were  sown  as  iiterd  in  a  field 
which  was  previously  dry.  A  common  form  of  agricultural 
improvement  is  the  construction  of  embankments  round 
wheat-fields,  which  hold  up  water  till  sowing-time,  when  it  is 
drained  oft'.  These  embankments  give  the  field  which  they 
enclose  a  double  advantage  over  unembanked  land:  (i)  the 
moisture  necessary  for  germination  is  available 'for  a  much 
longer  period  than  in  unembanked  land,  and  (2)  the  standing 
water  renders  the  ground  much  softer  than  it  would  be  if 
unembanked,  and,  if  the  water  can  be  maintained  at  a  suffi- 
cient depth,  the  growth  of  weeds  is  prevented.  Consequently 
the  field  requires  many  fewer  ploughings  (one  or  two  as 
compared  with  four  10  six  in  unembanked  land).  If  there  be 
sufficient  moisture  at  sowing-time,  wheat  only  want.,  one  good 
fall  of  rain  in  December  to  give  a  very  fair  outturn.  If  it  gets 
another  fall  in  January  or  at  the  beginning  of  February  it 
should  give  a  full  crop,  unless  unseasonable  rain  towards  the 
end  of  February  produce  rust  or  damage  be  caused  by  hail. 
The  crop  is  reared  in  the  first  three  weeks  of  Marcli. 


CROPS.  141 

10$.  The  principal  spring  crops  besides  wheat  are  linseed, 
castor,  and  rabi  pulses  such   as  urad 
>a6i' mflses. '^^^ '^' '    '^"        {Pliascolus   racUatus),    baturd    {Pisuni 
sativum),    masur    {Ervuin    lens)    and 
gram.     The  ground  in  which  these  crops  arc  to  be  sown  is 
usually  given  two  preliminary  ploughings  (or  in  the  case  of 
linseed  three)  in  August  and  September.       If  moisture  is 
plentiful  and  near    the  surface,    linseed,  baturd,  masur,  and 
castor  arc  usually  sown  broadcast  and  then  ploughed  in  like 
kodon  and  rice.    If  the  moisture  is  beginning  to  sink  into  the 
ground  and  the  surface  soil  is  drying,  tliey  are  sown  in   lines 
like  wheat.     The  broadcast  method  is    preferred    as    saving 
labour,   for   one    man    can  let    his    plough   stand    while   he 
scatters    the  seed,    and  then   plough  the  latter  in  ;    whereas, 
if  the  crop  is  sown  in  lines,  a  second  man  is  required  to  drop 
the  seed  into  the  ford.     Gram  is  a  crop  which   can    be   sown 
lill  well  on  into   December,  and  is  therefore  usually  left  till 
after  the  others  have  been  put  into  the  ground,  and  is  sown 
in   lines  hke  wheat.     Castor  is  usually  sown  at  the  beginning 
of  October,  linseed  in  the  middle  of  October,  and  baturd  and 
masiir  early  in    November.     Wheat  and  barley  can  be  sown 
throughout   November  and  even   early  in    December.     The 
usual  allotment  of  the  principal  kinds  of  seed  to  an  acre  is 
approximatel}'  as  follows  : — 

Seeri;. 
Rice       ...  ...  ...  ...     32 

Kodon    ...  ...  ...  •••       Ss 

Sesainum  ...  ...  ...       31 

Wheat    ...  ...  ...  ...     44 

Linseed  ...  ...  ...       3^ 

loG.  Sugarcane  is  a  crop  of  some  importance  in  tlie  east 
of  the  District.     It  is  usually  grown  in 

Sugarcane. 

plots  of  land,  permanently  set  apart  for 
the  purpose  and  enclosed  by  mud  walls,  which  are  locally 
called  banJiJids.  There  are  usually  two  of  these  (sometimes 
more)  in  each   village   where    sugarcane  is  regularly  grown 


142  BILASPUR.       AGRICULTURE. 

which  arc  placed  near  to  the    tank   oi   river   which  suppHes 
tlic   large  amount  of  water  necessary   for    the    crop.     The 
latter  is  usually  sown  every  other  year,  or  every  third  year, 
the  Intnlilid  being  usually  cropped  in  the  intermediate  years 
with  utad    or  soinetinies  allowed  to  lie  fallow.     The  prepara- 
tion of  the  ground   for  sugarcane   begins   in  January   wlien 
the  banlilia  is   irrigated.     It  is  tlien    thoroughly  ploughed 
from  six   to  eight  times,  after  which  any  clods  which  remain 
are  pounded  up  by  the  head  of  the  one-pronged  pick  called 
a  kiidali,  which  serves   as   a  substitute  for  the  spade  in  this 
country.     When   the    whole    bavckhd  has  been  reduced  to 
fine  tilth,  broad  longitudinal  lines  or  chdnchJs  are  made  about 
a  foot  apart  by  a  plough  behind  the  sliare  of  which  is  attached 
a  triangular  piece  of  wood  wliich  has  the  effect  of  widening 
the  furrows.    Then  lateral  channels  for  the  distribution  of  the 
water   are  made  at  right  angles  to    tlic  clidnchls  in  the  same 
iiuTuncr.    Up  to  this  point  all  the  labour  involved  in  breaching 
the  tank,  ploughing,  and  forming  the  c/id/ic/iJs  and  water-chan- 
nels, has  been   performed  jointly  by  all  those  who  intend  to 
grow   cane.     Henceforward  each   man   attends  to  his  own 
plot  within   tlie  barchlid.,  although  all  jointly  contribute  the 
labour  involved  in   irrigation,  or,  later  in  the  season  when 
the  water  in  the  tank  runs  low,  the  payment  of  the  labourers 
who  ply  the  basket-lift.     Each  man  heaps   the  earth   of  his 
plot  into  small  mounds  called  dhurus  between  the    ongitu- 
dinal  lines,  leaving  spaces,  of  course,  for  the  lateral   water- 
channels.     The  plots  are  then  manured,  about  12  cartloads 
being  allowed  to  the  acre.     After  this  the  barchhd  is  again 
irrigated,   and  when  the  earth  in   the  iiuvidds  (which  is  the 
name  given  to  the  sections  of  the  cJidnchls  which  lie  between 
each  p^r  of  lateral   water-channels)   is  thoroughly  puddled 
into  mud,  short  pieces  of  cane,  each  having  three   eyes,  are 
planted  in  the  mud,   tlic  allotment  being  about  10,000  to  the 
acre.     About  a    fortnight    or   three  weeks  later,    when    the 
plant.s   have  sprouted  and  the  earth  has  dried,  the  cracks  ^rc 
filled  up  with  manure  and  the   hdrcJiJia  is    again   irrigated. 


CROPS.  143 

When  tlie  soil  has  again  partial!}'  dried  lor  a  day  or  two 
the  earth  of  the  intermediate  mounds  or  dhurus  is  raked 
about  the  roots  of  the  plants.  By  this  time  it  is  the  end  of 
February.  The  crop  is  twice  irrigated  in  March,  and 
towards  the  end  of  that  month  the  earth  is  banked  up  about 
the  plants.  In  April,  when  resort  to  the  cJiJiapa  has 
generally  to  be  made,  the  crop  is  watered  twice,  in  May  three 
times,  and  in  June  twice  or  three  times  according  to  the 
date  on  which  the  monsoon  breaks.  After  each  watering 
the  earth  is  banked  up  about  the  plants,  and  at  the  end  of  June 
manure  is  applied  for  the  third  time.  During  the  rains  the 
lower  leaves  of  the  plants  are  coiled  round  the  canes,  and 
after  the  end  of  the  monsoon  the  barcJiha  is  irrigated  four 
or  five  times  according  to  necessity.  The  crop  usually 
ripens  in  January  and  is  cut  in  that  month  or  in  February. 
Barclihas  are  held  on  various  tenures.  Usually  the  barc/i/id 
is  either  held  jointly  by  the  malguzar  and  the  village  com- 
munity who  cultivate  cane  in  partnership,  the  members  of 
the  partnership  varying  from  year  to  year,  and  no  allocation 
of  plots  being  made  for  longer  than  the  current  year;  or 
else  the  strips  of  land  cultivated  by  each  man  within  the 
bairJihd  are  held  by  him  in  perpetuity  and  are  included  in 
his  regular  holding.  Sometimes  the  barchhd  is  the  mal- 
guzar's  sir,  part  of  which  he  lets  in  small  strips  to  those 
tenants  who  wish  to  grow  cane  for  the  year  in  which  sugar- 
cane is  grown,  and  is  in  the  intermediate  years  cropped 
with  urad  by  the  malguzar  alone.  Whichever  of  these 
three  tenures  prevails,  all  the  work  of  ploughing  and  irriga- 
tion is,  as  has  been  said  above,  undertaken  by  all  the 
cultivators  of  sugarcane  jointly,  as  the  strip  which  each  man 
holds  is  too  small  to  admit  of  his  ploughing  it  separately. 

107.  Market-gardening  is  of  some    importance   in    the 
Bilaspur  tahsll,   but   the  various   sorts 

\'egetables. 

of  vegetables  which  are  produced  var}' 
so  much  in  treatment  that  it  is  not  possible  to  give  a  full 
account  of  the  methods  adopted  in  any  reasonable  space. 


I/J4  nil.ASPCR.       AnRICt'lTI'^RF. 

The  i^roiind  for  garden  crops  i^?  plouglicd  as  often  ns  pos- 
sible in  tlic  earlier  part  of  the  rains  to  free  it  from  grass  and 
weeds,  and  the  seed  of  most  of  the  earlier  varieties  of  vege- 
table is  sown  in  nurseries  at  tlic  end  of  August  and  the 
beginning  of  September.  The  seedlings  are  transplanted  at 
the  end  of  September,  and  are  irrigated  after  the  close  of  the 
rains  as  occasion  requires  ^usually  twice  a  week)  by  means 
of  a  lift  from  a  temporary  well  or  from  the  bed  of  a  stream. 
The  construction  of  the  lift  and  the  division  of  the  plots  into 
chess-board  squares  is  too  common  throughout  India  to 
require  special  description.  Fresh  sowings  go  on  throughout 
the  cold  weather,  and  gardening  ceases  towards  the  end  of 
the  hot  weather.  In  villages  where  garden  cultivation  is  not 
well  established,  a  malguzar  or  well-to-do  tenant  often,  after 
the  rice  crop  has  been  cut,  gives  one  of  his  rice-fields,  which 
is  situated  conveniently  for  irrigation,  to  a  Marar  for  garden 
cultivation  on  condition  of  being  supplied  with  vegetables. 

CATTLE. 

1 08.  The  agricultural  cattle  of  this  District  as  shown  in 

the  returns  for  1905-06  (the  year  near- 
Agricultural  cattle. 

est  to  that  from  the  returns  of  which 

the  statistics  in  this  chapter  have  been  taken)  amounted  to 
919,214  head,  of  which  618,964  were  owned  in  the  ^//JAv? 
and  300,250  in  the  zamlndaris.  It  is  thus  evident  that  the 
cattle  are  most  numerous  just  where  there  is  the  least  pas- 
turage ;  and  the  average  area  of  waste  suitable  for  grazing 
per  head  of  cattle  in  the  kJialsa  was  in  1905-06  076  of  an 
acre  as  compared  with  377  acres  in  the  zamindaris  (apart 
from  the  large  unsurveyed  area  which  exists  in  the  latter 
tract).  To  this  circumstance,  coupled  with  the  persistent 
refusal  of  the  people  to  grow  crops  that  are  useful  for  fodder, 
are  due  the  stunted  growtli  and  miserable  stamina  of  the 
Chhattisgarh  cattle  which  are  a  by-word  throughout  the 
Provinces.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  open  season  they  are 
turned  out  daily  to  graze  in  the  charge  of  the  village  herds- 
man or  Ihxniiha.  and  in  the  open  parts  of  the   District  pick 


uAriLE,  145 

up  what  sustenance  they  can  from  the  stunted  grass  which 
grows  on  the  village  waste  and  the  embankments  of  the  rice- 
fields,  and  from  the  stubble  which  has  been  left  in  the  fields 
after  the  crops  have  been  reaped,  tn  the  hot  weather,  when 
there  is  practicall}'  no  natural  pasture  to  be  had,  they  are 
given  at  night  time  a  quantity  of  rice-straw  just  sufficient 
to  support  life  upon.  Stall-feeding  worth  the  name  is  prac- 
tically unknown.  In  the  rains  the  area  available  for  grazing 
is  restricted  to  the  village  waste,  and  although  the  latter 
gives  a  better  yield  of  grass  (unless,  as  happens  in  some 
of  the  clay-soil  villages,  the  going  and  coming  of  the  cattle 
tread  it  up  into  a  slimy  morass  in  which  grass  cannot 
grow),  the  heav}'  labour  demanded  from  them  at  a  time  when 
their  vitality  has  been  sapped  by  the  starvation  which  they 
have  undergone  in  the  hot  weather  results  in  very  great 
mortality,  apart  from  the  ravages  of  the  various  forms  of 
disease  (principally  rinderpest  and  anthrax)  which  annually 
sweep  off  thousands  of  cattle  in  Chhattlsg^rh.  The  infected 
animals  are  never  segregated,  and  consequently  when  an 
epidemic  gets  a  footing  in  a  villag"  it  runs  through  the  whole 
herd ;  and  it  is  a  matter  for  astonishment  that  so  manv  cattle 
survive  rather  than  that  so  many  succumb.  In  the  past  year 
(1908)  it  would  hardly  be  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  a 
quarter  of  the  cattle  of  the  open  parts  of  the  District 
have  died.  Despite  the  pecuniar}^  loss  so  entailed  which, 
excluding  young  stock  from  consideration  and  valuing  adult 
cattle  at  the  very  moderate  estimate  of  Rs.  7  a  head,  must 
in  the  past  year  have  amounted  to  about  eight  laklis  of 
rupees,  the  bulk  of  the  open  portion  of  the  District  is  so 
denuded  of  jungle  and  is  so  far  from  the  forests  of  the 
Government  reserves  and  the  zamindaris,  that  the  people 
are  unable  to  send  away  their  cattle  to  healthier  surroundings 
and  adequate  pasturage.  Such  cattle  as  go  to  the  reserves 
from  any  distance  are  generally  the  property  of  well-to-do 
village  proprietors,  or  of  professional  herdsmen  who  remain 
in  the  forests  for  most  of  the  year.     At  the  present  revision 


1^6  IMLASPPK.       Ar.Kff  ll.lCkH. 

of  sclllcmciit  ihc   ex|)criiiiei)t  i-'    heing  tried  of   reserving   for 
grazing,    liy   a  clause    in  the   administration    paper  of  each 
village,  an  irreducible   minimum  of  waste.     Tnis   measure  is 
not  an   innovation,   but    is   a   reversion    to    the   custom    by 
which,  bcfijrc  land  tenures  were  stereotyped    by    the  British 
administration,  a  definite  share  of  ihc   village  lands  was   set 
apart  for  '  Lakshmi  '  ^   at  each  periodical  redistribution.     But 
this  can  at  best  be  only  a  palliative,  and  improvement  can  only 
be  looked  for  from  the  spread  of  enlightenment,  and  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  advisability  of  devoting  a  siftall  proportion  of  the 
■   land  now  restricted  to  the  profitable   crops  of  rice  and  wheat 
10  the  growth  of  staples  like  juar   which  afford  good  fodder. 
The  main  reason  for  the  failure  to  grow  such  crops  is  the 
laziness  of  the  Chhattlsgarhl   cultivator,   whose  objection  to 
juar  is  that  it  takes  too   much   trouble  to  watch  and  protect 
from   the  ravages  of  birds.     The  low  pitch  of  the  present 
rent-rate  which  in  the  Mungell  tahsil,   the  best  part  of  the 
District,  amounts   to  about   1 1  annas  an  acre  and    will  after 
the  revision  of  settlement  be  still  considerably  less  than  R.   i 
an  acre,  renders  the  cultivator  apt  not  to  take  his  means  of 
livelihood  as  seriously  as  he  might,  and  it  will  probably  be  a 
very  long  time  before  the  pressure  of  the  rent-rate   stimulates 
him  to  adopt  less  wasteful  methods.     As  might  be  anticipated 
the  value  of  the  cattle  of  the  District  is    not  great.     The 
average  price  of  a  pair  of  oxen  is  about  Rs.  25  and  of  a  pair  of 
buffaloes  about  Rs.  40.     The  bulls,    bullocks,   and   cows  of 
the  District   are  mostly   bred  locally,    but  there    is   a   large 
import   trade  in   butTaloes  which  are  brought  down  annually 
in  large  herds  by  Basdewii  drovers  from  the  Saugor  District 
and  the  Rewah  State  via  the    Mandla  District,   and  sold  at 
the  important  cattle   markets  of  Gondkhami  in   the  Mungell 
tahsil,  Ganiari    and   Bilaspur    in    the    Bilaspur    tahsil,    and 
Bamnidih    m    the    Janjgir   tahsil,    at    which    thousands    of 
buffaloes  (many  of  them,  of  course,    locally   bred)   change 
hands  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

bee  tlie  description  of  the  custom  oUdkhabdtaia  Chapter  VIJI. 


CHAPTER  V. 

LOANS,  PRICES,  WAGES,  MANUFACTURES,  TRADE 

AND  COMMUNICATIONS. 

LOANS. 

109.  Expenditure  on  agricultural  improvements  is  chiefly 
.  directed  towards  the  construction  of 
Government  Loans.  tanks  and  field-embankments.  But  the 
cultivators  do  not  build  large  and  strong 
embankments  for  their  rice-fields  so  regularly  as  in  Chanda 
and  Sambalpur.  In  former  times  the  custom  of  lakhabdta 
or  the  periodical  redistribution  of  the  fields  of  the  village 
among  all  the  cultivators  with  a  view  to  obtaining  equal 
advantages  from  the  land  to  each  in  turn  was  regularly  followed 
in  Chhattlsgarh.  The  original  idea  underlying  this  custom 
must  have  been  that  the  ryots  of  a  village  were,  as  it  were, 
shareholders  in  the  return  which  was  obtainable  from  the 
soil ;  and  the  idea  of  private  property  in  land  had  not  yet  been 
devised.  But  the  consequence  of  the  custom  was  that  the 
fields  of  any  individual  did  not  lie  in  a  compact  block  but 
were  scattered  throughout  the  village,  and  this  state  of 
affairs  was  an  almost  fatal  obstacle  to  the  improvement  of 
holdings.  With  the  increase  in~  the  value  of  property,  the 
custom  of  lakhabdta  has  now  largely  fallen  into  abeyance. 
Except  in  years  of  scarcity  the  amounts  advanced  under 
the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act  have  n^t  been  large. 
Between  1874  and  1891  only  Rs.  14,000  were  given 
out  altogether,  and  less  than  Rs.  11,000  between  1891 
and  1896.  During  the  two  following  finanical  years,  which 
covered  the  famine  of  1897,  Rs.  1*25  lakhs  were  advanced. 
In  the  next  famine  of  1900  it  was  found  that  the  series  of 
bad  years  had  left  the  proprietors  so  heavily  involved,  that 
tbey  were  not  in  a  position  to  incur  any  fresh  obligations- 
A  large  number  of  village  works  were   consequently   under- 


148  BILASPUR.       LOANS,    PRICES,    WAGES,    ETC. 

taken  from  Government  funds,  being  constructed  both  directly 
by  a  civil  works  establishment  though  situated  on  private 
land,  and  by  means  of  free  grants  of  money  to  the  village 
proprietors,  subject  to  the  condition  that  they  should  give 
employment  to  all  destitute  persons  in  their  villages  who 
required  it.  In  this  way  works  of  improvement  consisting 
mainly  in  the  construction  and  repair  of  tanks  were  carried 
out  in  hundreds  of  villages  at  Government  expense,  without 
the  imposition  of  any  further  obligation  on  the  already 
embarrassed  village  proprietors.  'Die  work  done  by  Govern- 
ment in  this  manner  in  1900,  and  during  the  subsequent  years 
of  scarcity  of  1903  and  1906.  represented  a  far  larger  expen- 
diture than  the  whole  amount  distributed  in  land  improve- 
ment loans  from  1874  to  the  present  time,  but,  unfortunately, 
no  statistics,  either  of  the  improvements  eflfected  or  of 
the  expenditure  incurred,  have  been  obtainable.  Altogether 
Rs.  1  'g6  lakhs  have  been  advanced  under  the  Act  during  the  last 
35  years,  and  of  this  Rs.  1*26  lakhs  principal  and  Rs.  13,000 
interest  have  been  recovered.  In  1897.  when  the  largest 
advances  were  made  on  account  of  the  famine  of  that  year, 
the  loans  were  given  without  interest  and  subject  to  remis- 
sion of  a  fourth  of  the  principal.  Between  1S90  and  1905  a 
total  of  289  sanads  or  certificates  for  works  of  improvement 
were  distributed,  the  majority  of  these  being  for  the  con- 
struction of  bandJiias  or  field-embankments. 

The  advances  made  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act 
were  also  trifling  up  to  the  period  of  the  famine  of  1S97.  but 
in  tliat  year  about  Rs.  i-20  lakhs  were  advanced,  while  in 
1900  01  the  enormous  sum  of  5^  lakhs  was  given  out,  the 
advances  in  this  year  being  made  free  of  interest.  Again  in 
1902-03  Rs.  1-29  lakhs  and  in  1905-06  Rs.  roi  lakhs  were 
advanced.  'I  he  total  amount  of  the  loans  made  under  the 
Act  from  1888  to  1906  was  Rs  10  40  lakhs  of  which  Rs  7  3 5 
lakhs  have  been  recovered  and  Rs.  1-91  lakhs  remitted. 
The  bulk  of  the  loans  were  given  without  interest  and  under 
this  head  only  Rs.  23,000  have  been  obtained. 


LOANS.  149 

110.  The  rate  of  interest  on  private  loans  in  cash  varies 
from  6  to  24  per  cent,  according  to  the 

Private  loans.  -    ,        ,  ,      ,  r 

amount  of  the  loan  and  the  status  ot 
the  borrower.  For  rice  the  most  common  rate  is  deorhi 
or  50  per  cent,  while  25  per  cent,  is  charged  to  substantial 
borrowers  or  between  friends.  In  the  famines  these  rates 
were  doubled.  When  a  man  borrows  a  loan  of  grain,  he 
must  pay  the  kotvvar  or  village  watchman  an  anjd  or  handful 
for  measuring  the  grain,  and  when  lie  makes  payment, 
instead  of  10  kathds^  interest  per  khandl  of  20  kdtJids  lie 
has  to  pay  1 1  kdthds  to  the  moneylender  and  one  kdthd 
to  the  kotvvar,  but  the  rice  repaid  at  harvest  is  somewhat 
damp  and  one  or  two  kdthds  may  be  subsequently  lost 
by  dryage.  If  only  sawai  or  25  per  cent,  interest  is  charged, 
the  lender  deducts  one  kdthd  in  the /(V/^rz/rt^f  or  five  per  cent, 
in  consideration  of  tlie  low  rate  of  interest.  And  another 
half  kdthd  per  khandl  is  deducted  for  the  measurer.  At 
the  time  of  payment  again  the  lender  will  take  back  27 
kdthds  per  khandl  of  20  kdthds,  charging  one  kdthd  extra 
on  account  of  the  low  rate  of  interest  and  one  for  the  mea- 
suring fee  of  the  kotwar.  Thus  in  the  end,  the  borrower 
has  to  pay  nearly  50  per  cent,  interest.  The  practice  of 
purchasing  the  crops  in  advance  while  they  are  on  the  ground 
is  found  sometimes  in  the  Janjgir  tahsll,  where  it  is  known 
as  damkari  or  laoni.  The  lender  gives  grain  valued  at  the 
high  rates  prevalent  before  harvest  and  stipulates  to  be 
repaid  tlie  equivalent  cash  value  at  the  low  grain  rates  fol- 
lowing on  the  ne.v  harvest.  Thus  it  has  happened  that  a 
lender  gave  a  loan  at  six  kdthds  to  the  rupee  and  was  repaid 
after  harvest  at  the  rate  of  18  kdthds  to  the  rupee  for  each 
six  kdt/ids  advanced.  But  such  a  case  as  this  is,  of  course, 
very  rare.  Tlie  word  damkari  means  '  one  who  is  at  the 
point  of  losing  his  breath,'  because  his  need  of  money  is  so 
urgent,  and  signifies  aptly  the  nature  of  the  transaction. 

^  Equal  to  about  6  lbs.  of  unhusked  rice. 


150  niLASPUR.       LOANS,    PRICES,    WAGES,    ETC. 

111.  Tlic  principal  banking  firm  is  that  of  Palilad  Sao, 

Kasondha  Bania  of  Bilaspur;  but 
Pahlad  Sao  himself  is  now  dead  and 
the  business  is  managed  by  his  three  brothers.  Their 
dealings  are  principally  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsll,  where  they 
possess  45  villages.  Bhondu  Sao  of  Ratanpur  is  another 
large  moneylender  who  owns  five  villages  and  has  a  mortgage 
on  the  whole  of  the  Katgi  estate.  Other  leading  money- 
lenders are  Jailal  Sao,  Kasondha  Bania  of  Flpartalai  near 
Kota;  Thakur  Bhagwan  Singh,  Baghel  Rajput  of  Pandaria; 
Deonalli  Tiwari,  Chhattisgarbl  Brahman  of  Ganiari  ;  and 
Parasram  Singh  of  Jagtaha  near  Mungell,  who  is  the  richest 
man,  as  well  as  being  the  largest  banker  in  the  Mungeli 
tahsil.  In  Janjgir  tahsil  Kheduram  Sao,  Kasarwani  Bania 
of  Seorinarayan,  has  the  most  extensive  transactions,  and 
next  to  him  Darshan  Singh,  Daraiha  Rajput  of  Sunad. 
Other  prominent  men  are  Gautam  Das  Mahant,  Bairagi  of 
Seorinarayan  ;  Baijnath  Agharia  of  Karari  in  Chandarpur  ; 
Hari  Singh,  Daraiha  Rajput  of  Thathari  ;  and  Keshri 
Singh  of  Mulmula  and  Nllkanth  of  Rasota,  Daraiha  Rajput. 

112.  In  1 868  land  had    little  or  no  saleable  value.     In 

paragraph     307      of    his    Settlement 

Traiist'ers     of    landed       r-,  ^    •«»  r^\  •   \     ^  ,.  c  xt. 

properly.  Report   Mr.     Chisholm    wrote :—'  No 

'  further  remarks  seem  necessary  in 
'  connection  with  the  assessments  of  the  District,  and  I  need 
'  only  note  the  low  value  which  landed  property  realises.  In 
'  former  days  there  was  no  sale  for  villages  at  all,  and  even 
'  during  my  experience  one  year's  revenue  was  generally 
'  the  utmost  that  could  be  obtained.  Since  the  grant  of  pro- 
*  prietary  rights,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  pur- 
'  chasers,  but  the  price  which  can  be  secured  for  transfer  is 
'still  very  limited.  I  have  a  memorandum  of  15  villages 
'  which  have  been  transferred  during  the  current  year.  The 
'annual  revenue  of  these  villages  was  Rs.  1262-,  and  the 
'  aggregate  price  realised  on  sale  was  only  Rs.  4383,  or 
'  less  on     the    average   than    four  years'   purchase.       The 


LOANS.  151 

'  maximum  price  obtained  was  eight  times  the  Government 
^  revenue,  the  minimum  price  a  little  in  excess  of  one  year's 
'  revenue.  The  fact  of  eight  3'ears'  purchase  having  been 
'  already  attained   in  more  than  one  instance  is  an  encourag- 

*  ing  circumstance,  and  shows  that  with  an  absolute  title, 
'  even    here     landed    property    will    gradually    assume     an 

*  appreciable  value.' 

At  Mr.  Chisholm's  settlement  then  the  average  selling 
value  of  property  was  only  four  times  the  Governmen  t 
revenue.  During  the  23  years,  from  1867  to  1850,  a  total  of 
503  whole  villages  and  383  shares  in  villages  were  sold, 
that  is  between  a  quarter  and  a  third  of  the  total  number 
of  villages  in  the  District.  The  Government  revenue  on 
the  property  sold  was  Rs.  74,000,  and  the  price  paid  was 
Rs.  ^•6'j  lakhs,  giving  a  multiple  of  nine  times  the  land 
revenue.  In  spite  of  the  large  increase  of  revenue  imposed 
at  the  settlement  of  18S8-90,  and  of  the  period  of  protracted 
agricultural  depression  through  which  the  District  has  since 
passed,  the  value  of  property  has  steadily  continued  to  appre- 
ciate. During  the  14  years,  from  1891-92  to  1904-05,  a 
total  of  184  whole  villages  and  999  shares  of  villages  have 
been  sold.  Ihe  Government  revenue  on  the  property  trans- 
ferred was  Rs.  76,000,  and  the  price  paid  was  Rs.  I3"2i 
lakhs,  giving  a  multiple  of  nearly  seventeen  and  a  half  times 
the  Government  demand.  Of  the  total  of  1  183  transfers,  166 
were  made  by  moneylenders  and  912  by  agriculturists,  while 
468  were  made  to  moneylenders  and  561  to  agriculturists^ 
A  coxisiderable  amount  of  property  has  thus  passed  from  the 
cultivating  to  the  capitalist  classes,  as  was  only  to  be 
expected  when  a  body,  containing  so  many  improvident  mem- 
bers as  the  malguzars  of  the  District,   had  to  undergo  such 


^  During  the  17  years  eliding  1907-08  according  to  the  reconstituted 
District  a  total  of  234  whole  villages  and  i  loS  .shares  of  villages  have  been 
sold.  The  Government  revenue  on  the  property  transferred  was  R.*;.  i  01 
lakhs  and  the  price  paid  was  R^.  1876  lakhs,  giving  a  multiple  of  more 
than  eighteen  and  a  half  times  the  Government  demand.  Of  the  total  of  13^6 
transfers  68  were  made  by  moneylenders,  1251  by  agriculturists,  while  540 
were  made  to  moneylenders  and  62y  to  agriculturists. 


152  lUIASFl  K.        LOANS,    PRlChb,     WAGl.S,    Kit. 

;.  borics  ol'  financial  disasters  as  that  imposed  by  the  famine-^ 
of  the  period  from  1890  to  1900.  Inasmuch  as  the  land 
itrtclf  is  now  more  valuable  than  it  has  ever  been,  there  is 
no  reason  to  regard  the  condition  of  the  agricultural  com- 
munity with  despondency.  Up  to  the  year  1899  the  Mungell 
tahsil  fared  worse  than  the  rest  of  the  District,  and  the  pro- 
prietors in  this  area  were  very  heavily  indebted,  but  in  1900 
the  Janjgir  tahsil  was  also  severely  aff'ected. 

113.  Statistics  of  the  castes  of  proprietors  of  the  revised 
District  are  not  available,    but   at  last 

Castes  of  proprietors.  ^^^^^^^^^^      ij^^    principal    landholdiog 

castes  were  the  Brahmans,  who  owned  524  villages  out  of 
2242  or  about  a  quarter  of  the  whole  number  in  the  District. 
Next  to  them  came  the  Banias  with  280  villages,  the  Kurmis 
with  226,  the  Bairagis  with  156,  the  Chamars  with  148,  the 
Rajputs  with  22G,  of  which  97  were  held  by  Daraiha 
Rajputs,  the  Gonds  with  lOi.the  Muhammadans  with  119, 
the  Telis  with  87,  and  the  Tawars  with  42.  During  the  20 
years  of  Mr.  Chisholm's  settlement  the  Gonds  lost  44 
villages  and  the  Tawars  42,  while  the  Banias  gained  59 
villages.  The  position  of  other  castes  did  not  materially 
alter. 

Mr.  Carey  wrote  of  the  proprietors  with  special 
reference  to  the  Mungell  tahsil : — '  The  best  malguzars  are 
'  the  Kurmis  who  are  resident,  while  the  worst  are  the  non- 
'  resident  Maratha  Brahmans.  The  former  when  well-to-do 
'  lielp  their  tenants  over  bad  times  by  timely  loans,  and 
'save  them  from  the  clutches  of  the  Bania.  The  tenant 
'  consequently  is  not  bled  to  death  and  is  able  to  pay  a 
'  higher  rent  in  addition  to  being  better  off  than  his  luckless 
'  neigi>bours,.ihe  tenants  of  the  Bhat  Brahman.  The  latter 
'  lives,  as  a  rule,  in  Nawagarh  and  comes  but  once  or  twice 
'  a  year  to  collect  rent.  In  many  of  their  villages  tenants 
'are  poor  and  invariably  indebted,  faking  the  malguzars 
'  as  a  whole  they  are  well-to-do.  What  militates  most 
'  against  their  prosperity  is  the  subdivision  of  proprietary 


LOANS.  153 

'right.  It  requires  but  little  to  demonstrate  that  a  village 
'which  was  sufficient  to  maintain  two  or  three  men  coni- 

*  forlably  at  settlement  can  hardly  be   expected  to  support- 

*  ten  or  fifteen  sharers  now.  The  malguzars,  however,  live 
'  and  multiply  on  the  land  and  are  as  stay-at-home  as  French- 

*  men.  When  one  reasons  with  them,  one  is  confronted  with 
'  many  futile  objections  against  migrating  even  from  their 
'own  tahsil  in  search  of  employment.' 

T 14.  Mr.    Purshottam    Das    wrote    of  the    tenants    as 
follows: — *  Chamars    form    the     great 

Tenants. 

'bulk  of  the  agriculturists;  they  are 
'generally  lazy  and  not  so  energetic  as  Kurmis,  Telis  and 
'  Marars.  They  are  most  untruthful  and  quarrelsome,  and 
'  always  ready  to  have  recourse  to  litigation.  They  are  found 
'  in  large  numbers  only  in  the  Mungell  tahsil  and  the  southern 
'  and  western  parts  of  the  Bilaspur  tahsil.  There  are 
'  extremely  few  Chamars  in  the  Seorlnarayan  tahsil,  and  as 
'  one  proceeds  eastward,  one  seldom  meets  with  the  cultivators 
'  of  this  caste.  The  Kurmis,  who  chiefl}'  inhabit  the  western 
'  parts  of  the  Mungell  tahsil,  are  energetic  and  prosperous. 
'  Chandnahu  Kurmis  are  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  Jai^ 
'Jaipur  and  Hasod  groups  lying  beyond  the  Hasdo  river.-  The 
'  Gonds,  who  are  generally  poor,  and  the  Telis,  who  are  good 
'cultivators,  are  met  with  in  all  the  tahsils,  while  the  Rawats 
'  are  found  mostly  in  the  Bilaspur  and  Seorlnarayan  tahsils, 
'  where  they  find  sufficient  pasture  for  their  cattle.  The 
'  Kewats  and  Pankas  are  known  for  their  poverty.  The  former 

*  generally  inhabit  the  villages  situated  near  the  banks  of 
'rivers  and  streams  and  subsist  partly  by  fishing  and  partly 
'  by  agriculture,  while  the  latter  maintain  themselves  both  by 
'agriculture  and  weaving  cloth.  A  large  number  of  Lodhis, 
'  who  are  generally  prosperous  and  hardworking,  cultivate 
'land  in  the  groups  of  Pendri,  Padampur  and  Patharia  in  the 
'  Mungell  tahsil.  There  are  very  few  Muhammadan  cultivators, 
'  and  they  are  generally  poor  and  destitute  of  agricultural 
'  resources.     Though  a  large  majority  of  the  cultivators  are 

X 


I  54     *  IlILASPUK.       l.OANb,    PRICES,    WAGF.S,    ETC. 

'  accubtonied  to  reside  in  miserable  liuts  and  to  wear  scanty 
'clothing  and  have  not  yet  completely  changed  their  old 
'  hai)iis  of  living,  they  have  certainly  made  material  progress 
'  and  are,  as  a  rule,  in  a  much  more  prosperous  condition  than 
•formerly.' 

After  the  famine  of  1900  the  condition  of  the  cultivators 
had  distinctly  deteriorated  and  many  of  the  smaller  men  were 
without  bullocks.  The  Deputy  Commissioner  wrote  that 
they  were  reduced  to  cultivating  their  fields  on  what  is 
known  as  thej'JjI/zja  system.  The  tenant  who  has  no  cattle 
goes  to  another  man  and  works  with  him  for  two  days,  and 
on  the  third  day  lie  is  allowed  to  take  his  employer's 
bullocks  to  his  own  field  and  use  them.  Similarly  if  he 
works  for  five  days  he  is  allowed  the  loan  for  one  day  of 
two  pairs  of  cattle  and  a  ploughman  for  the  second  pair.  In 
this  way  an  industrious  man  can  cultivate  on  his  own  account 
about  five  acres  of  land.  During  and  after  the  famines  it 
was  noticed  that  a  large  number  of  uncurrent  coins  found 
their  way  to  the  treasury.  About  15,000  of  these  were 
received  in  1897-98  and  4000  in  1901-02.  This  indicated 
that  the  cultivators  had  been  reduced  to  digging  up,  from 
under  their  fireplaces,  grinding-mills  and  doorsteps,  coins 
buried  many  years  before.  Since  then,  the  liberal  policy  of 
Government  in  the  grant  of  loans  and  advances  for  seed  and 
cattle  has  brought  about  a  great  revival  of  prosperity,  while 
the  high  prices  obtainable  for  agricultural  produce  have 
contributed  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  agricultural 
classes.  And  it  is  probable  that  they  are  now  on  the  whole 
better  off  than  ever  before. 

PRICES, 

1 15.  Rice  is  the  principal  staple  of  the  District  and  next 
„  .      .  to    it    comes    wheat.      The   following 

Prices  in  past  j-ears  '^ 

Statement,  compiled  from  that  given  by 
Mr.  Purshottam  Das  in  paragraph  22  of  his  Settlement  Report, 
shows  the   extraordinary  rise  in  the  prices  of  these  staples 


••.  303 

303 

...   213 

213 

...   120 

120 

...   42 

68 

...   74 

lie 

••■   59 

99 

54 

91 

...   38 

45 

•••  17. 

36 

...    27 

24 

...   30 

31 

PRICES.  155 

which  has  taken  place  during  the  last  sixty  years.  The 
prices  are  shown  in  pounds  per  rupee  : — 

Rice.  Wheat. 

,       1849—58 
1859—61 

186S— 71 

1877—81 
1882-86 
1887—90 
1891-95 

1896 — 1900 

1901—05 

The  price  of  rice  is  now,  therefore,  about  ten  times  as 
high  as  it  was  sixty  years  ago.  In  discussing  prices  during 
the  early  period,  Mr.  Carey  wrote^  : — 'The  figures  for  1849 
'to  1867  are  taken  direct  out  of  Mr.  Chisholm's  Settlemen 
'Report;  those  for  the  periods  1868  to  1886  were  supplied  to 

*  me  by  the  agent  to  the  Pandaria  zamlndar.  The  first  set  of 
'  figures  refers  then  to  the  whole  District,  while  the  latter 
'are  the  prices  current  in  Pandaria  and  are  fairly  representa- 
'  live  of  the  rates  obtainable  by  cultivators  for  their  grain  in 
'  the  Mungell  tahsil.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  prices 
'quoted  for  the  years  1849  to  1868  the  rates  for  wheat  and 
'rice  were  identical;  and  it  is  the  case  even  now  that  the 
'  prices    of   rice     and   wheat    approximate     much     more   in 

*  Bilaspur  town  than  in  Mungell.  In  Mungell  wheat  is 
'generally  considerably  cheaper  than  rice,  while  in  Seorl- 
'narayan  the  tables  are  reversed,  and  rice  is  cheap  while 
'wheat  is  dear.  An  analysis  of  the  figures  of  the  statement 
'shows  that  up  to  1863  the  prices  in  the  District  were 
'extremely  low.  In  1864  they  began  to  rise  a  good  deal, 
'  export  being  stimulated  by  the  failure  of  crops   in   other 


^  Quoted  in  Bilaspur  Settlement  Rtport  (1891),     para    22. 


156  UILASPUR.       LOANS,    TKICLS,    WAGES,    ETC. 

'parts   of  India   and    possibly    owing    to    the    blockade    of 

'  the    American  ports.      Mr.  Chisholm  shows  that  between 

'  1863  and   1867  rice  rose  IVom  1  Go  lbs.  to  40  lbs.  and  wheat 

*froin  176  lbs.  to  32  Ibb.     The  climax   was  reached  in  1869 

'  when  wheat  sold  at  20  lbs.  to  the  rupee  and  rice  at   18  lbs., 

'  the  cause  of  this  abnormal  state  of  tilings   being  a  serious 

'  famine  in  the  District.     In  1870  prices  became  more  normal 

'  and  wheat  sold  again  at  96  lbs.    to   the  rupee  and  rice  at 

'48  lbs.     No  disturbing  influence  occurred  till  1876   when  a 

'  bumper  crop  was  obtained  and  wheat  sold  at-  168  lbs.  to 

'  the  rupee  and  rice  at  80  lbs.     But  people  were  disappointed 

'  who  imagined  that  the  lialcyon  days   of  old  had  returned, 

'for  next  year  Banjaras  appeared  in  shoals  from  the  Jubbul- 

'  pore  side,  and    the  price   of  wheat  swung    back    to  So  lbs. 

'  and  of  rice  to    48  lbs.,    and  during   the  last    ten    years 

'(1877 — 86)  prices    have    fluctuated   slightly  around    these 

■  figures,  no  great  disturbing  influence  having  occurred.' 

116.  The  rates  on  which  Mr.  Chisholm's  settlement  was 

based,    were     those     prevailing   from 
Recent  rates. 

1804 — 68  or  about  120  lbs.  per  rupee 
for  rice  and  wheat.  During  the  years  1S84 — S8  preceding 
Mr.  Carey's  settlement,  the  prices  of  these  grains  had  risen 
to  54  lbs.  for  rice  and  about  57  lbs.  for  wheat.  Since 
then  the  price  of  rice  has  never  fallen  so  low.  From  43  lbs. 
in  1891,  it  rose  to  ^;^  lbs.  in  1895,  25  lbs.  in  1896,  2oi  lbs. 
in  1897,  and  23  lbs.  in  1900.  From  that  year  the  average 
has  been  about  29  lbs.  until  the  scarcity  of  1907,  when 
common  rice  sold  at  17  and  that  of  the  best  quality  at 
13  lbs.  for  a  rupee.  Prior  to  the  construction  of  the  railway 
and  the  development  of  the  export  trade  wheat  was,  as  a 
rule,  cheaper  than  rice,  being  in  less  demand  as  a  food-grain. 
But  since  1891  it  has  sold  at  about  the  same  rate  as  rice. 
The  average  price  for  the  five  years  ending  1S95  was  36  lbs., 
for  the  five  years  ending  1900,  24  and  during  the  five  years 
ending  1905,  31  lbs.  In  1907  the  rate  was  17  lbs.  or  the 
same  as  rice.     Gram  fetches  nearly  the  same  price  as  wheat. 


WAGES.  157 

117.  For    the   thirteen  years  prior  to  the  abolition  of 
the  customs  line  in  1874,  the  price  of 

Miscellaneous  priues. 

salt  averaged  12  lbs,  per  rupee.  Dunng 
the  next  twenty  years  it  remained  fairly  steady  at  15  to  17 
lbs.,  and  in  consequence  of  the  recent  reductions  of  duty  it 
fell  to  20  lbs.  in  1903,  21  lbs.  in  1905  and  23^-  lbs.  in  1907. 
Salt  is  obtained  botli  from  Bombay  and  Ganjam.  Indian 
sugar,  known  as  Mirzapuri,  is  now  principally  consumed, 
and  the  imports  of  foreign  sugar  have  considerably  declined. 
Mirzapuri  sugar  sells  at  6  lbs.  and  foreign  sugar  at  8  lbs. 
to  the  rupee.  Gur  or  unrefined  sugar  is  also  largely  obtained 
from  Northern  India  and  can  be  had  at  14  or  16  lbs.  to 
the  rupee,  whereas  the  local  product  of  Ratanpur,  which  is 
considered  to  be  better,  sells  at  only  12  lbs.  The  price  of 
ghl  o\'  melted  butter  is  from  ij  to  2  lbs.  to  the  rupee.  Milk 
is  16  to  20  lbs.  for  a  rupee  in  towns  and  32  lbs.  in  the 
interior.  Grass  costs  about  two  rupees  a  thousand  bundles 
and  rice-straw  four  rupees  a  cartload.  Firewood  is  two 
maunds  to  the  rupee- 

WAGES. 

118.  The  rates  of  cash  wages  for  labour  have   not  been 
recorded  for    Bilaspur    in    past  years, 

l'ai"m-servaiu>. 

but  those  for  Raipur  given  in  the 
Raipur  District  Gazetteer  may  be  taken  as  generally  applic- 
able. The  existing  rates  for  casual  labour  in  Bilaspur  town 
are  three  annas  a  day  for  a  man  and  two  annas  for  a  woman, 
while  in  villages  they  are  two  annas  and  six  pice  respec- 
tively. Recently  there  has  been  some  rise  in  the  rates  and  a 
man's  wage  has  gone  up  to  four  annas  in  Bilaspur.  The  great 
majority  of  the  agricultural  labourers  of  the  District  are  paid 
in  kind.  Saoujuxs  are  the  class  most  usually  employed. 
As  their  name  implies  their  remuneration  consists  of  a  share, 
usually  a  quarter,  of  their  master's  crop  which  is  divided 
among  all  the  scionjias  whom  he  maintains.  They  are  en- 
gaged in  March  for  the  year,  and  receive  a  measure  of  unhusk- 
ed  rice  a  day  which  amounts  usually  to  half,  and  sometimes 


158  niLASPUR.       LOANS,    PRICES,    WAGES,    ETC. 

to  thrcc-quailcrs,  of  the  usual  unit  of  grain  measurement,  the 
lainbarl  (or  standard)  kd//ui.^  The  amount  of  grain  advanced 
to  them,  together  with  50  per  cent,  interest  up  to  November, 
is  deducted  from  their  share  of  the  produce.  The  amount 
advanced  to  them  after  November  does  not  bear  interest,  as 
the  rice  crop  has  by  then  been  gathered,  and  the  daily 
allowance  is  treated  as  an  advance  from  the  saonjids  own 
share  of  it ;  although  the  latter  is  not  distributed  until  March, 
when  the  rabi  crop  is  harvested,  and  the  year's  account  is 
made  up.  The  .frr^wy'/rt  is  also  usually  given,  in  a  good  year, 
the  amount  of  grain  which  is  comprised  in  a  i^  foot  length 
of  the  heap  of  rice  as  it  lies  on  the  threshing-floor  after 
winnowing.  He  also  gets  the  husk  as  a  perquisite.  Saonjias 
are  preferred  to  other  kinds  of  farm-servants,  because,  having 
a  direct  interest  in  the  outturn  of  the  crop,  they  require 
little  or  no  supervision.  In  a  good  year  this  form  of  service 
is  very  profitable  to  the  labourer.  In  a  bad  year,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  may  find  himself  at  the  end  of  his  agreement 
considerably  worse  off  than  when  he  started,  as  his  share 
of  the  produce  may  very  easily  fall  short  of  the  amount  of 
grain  advanced  to  him  daily,  plus  interest  up  to  November. 
In  this  case,  however,  it  is  usually  held  a  point  of  honour 
with  tiie  employer  to  retain  the  sao)ijia  in  his  service  on 
the  same  terms  to  enable  him  to  clear  off  his  debt. 

The  second  class  of  agricultural  servants  are  called 
ponrJiars,  who  like  the  saonjias  are  engaged  for  the  year  in 
March,  The  ponrhar  then  receives  an  advance  of  about 
Rs.  10  in  cash  which  he  repays  without  interest  when  his 
service  terminates.     He  is  given   as   remuneration   a  chaltu 

^  The  usual  unit  of  grain  measurement  in  Chliattisgarh  is  the  lambari 
kCitha.  This  amounts  to  4  seers  9  chittacks  of  wheat  or  husked  rice,  and 
to  3  seers  4  chittacks  of  unhusked  rice.  The  chaltu  (common)  or  bhntia 
(labourers')  Av///«  is  lialf,  and  the  >;/rt/V(/(7  (medium) /{•(?///«  three-quarters 
of  lljis.  An  attempt  was  made  some  years  ago  to  introduce  a  standard 
k.nha  of  5  seers  of  wheat  or  husked  rice,  in  order  to  assimilate  the  ChhattTs- 
garh  measures  to  those  in  force  in  Nagpur  and  elsewhere  ;  but  it  met  with 
no  great  .success,  and  the  measure  which  is  locally  called  the  tCimi  or  brass 
*,7//i«(from  the  material  of  which  it  is  madei  is  rarely  used.  The  table  of 
measures  is  :  - 

20  kCithas   =1  ^/iff;/rf/ or  '  portion. 

20  hhaiidis^  I  gat  a  or  cartload. 


WAGES.  59 

or  sometimes  a  niajhld  katJid  of  unhusked  rice  a  day,  which, 
of  course,  he  has  not  to  repay.  His  employer  also  sets 
apart  for  him  a  small  area  of  land,  which  is  cultivated  with 
the  rest  of  the  employer's  holding,  the  employer  supplying 
seed,  plough-oxen,  and  labour,  but  to  which  the  labourer  is 
allowed  to  give  extra  cultivation  in  his  spare  time  and  of 
which  the  produce  is  given  to  him.  At  harvest  time  the 
ponrhdr  is  given  4  kdtlids  extra  as  a  reward  for  the  extra 
labour  involved  in  threshing  and  winnowing,  which  go  on, 
in  the  case  of  the  rice  harvest,  concurrently  with  the  sowing 
of  the  spring  crops,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  rabi  harvest, 
concurrently  with  the  preliminary  ploughing  of  the  rice-land 
which  is  to  be  sown  in  khitrrd.  What  the  precise  signifi- 
cance of  the  word  pour  is  is  not  clear.  It  is  applied  generic- 
ally  to  the  system  of  service  just  described,  the  essence  of 
which  appears  to  be  the  allotment  of  the  produce  of  a 
particular  plot  of  land  to  the  labourer. 

The  third  class  of  farm-servant,  which  high  prices  and 
short  harvests  are  beginning  to  bring  into  some  prominence, 
is  paid  in  cash.  A  man  so  remunerated  is  sometimes  called 
\^  a  bavasid  or  a  servant  engaged  for  the  year,  and  sometimes 
is  called  a  servant  pure  and  simple  (naukar).  He  either 
receives  a  monthly  wage  of  from  Rs.  2  to  I^s.  3-8,  or  is  given 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year  {i.e.^  in  March,)  an  advance, 
the  amount  of  which  varies  from  Rs.  25  after  a  bad  year 
when  the  labourers  want  work,  to  about  Rs.  40  after  a  good 
year  when  labourers  are  scarcer.  Men  so  paid  are  entitled 
to  nothing  besides  their  cash  remuneration,  except,  at  the 
time  of  the  rice  harvest,  to  as  large  a  sheaf  of  corn  as  they 
can  carry  away  on  their  heads ;  and  they  generally  also 
receive  a  donation  of  4  or  5  kdtJids  of  unhusked  rice  at 
harvest  time  in  consideration  of  the  extra  labour  expended 
by  them  on  threshing  and  winnowing.  Remuneration  in  Cash 
is  not  as  yet  very  common  ;  it  is  usually  resorted  to  by  the 
smaller  class  of  employers  whose  stock  of  rice  is  not  more 
than    sufficient    for    their  own  requirements.     Recourse  is 


l60  I'.II.AM'IfR.       l.OANS,    PRICFS.    WACES,    ETC. 

also  made  to  cash  payment  at  times  of  pressure  when  extra 
hands  arc  wanted,  or  wlien  the  lahourcr  distrusts  his 
cmploycr'b  mcasurctncnt  of  a  grain  wage.  Most  malguzars 
of  any  standing  maintain  in  each  village  where  they  have 
any  appreciable  area  of  home  farm  a  foreman-ploughman, 
who  is  called  a  chiroJu  and  receives  about  Rs.  3  a  month, 
his  food,  and  a  pair  of  shoes. 

Besides  these  regular  labourers  there  arc  a  number  of 
the  poorer  class  of  tenants  who  own  less  than  a  pair  of 
plough  cattle  and  cultivate  their  land  with  borrowed  oxen. 
The  idea  underlying  the  allotment  of  the  amount  of  work 
to  be  done  by  the  plough  for  the  borrower  and  lender 
respectively  is  of  some  interest.  A  man  who  has  no  cattle  is 
called  a  jljitwa  or  one  who  ploughs  by  preponderance  of 
lives.  Three  '  lives '  go  to  each  plough,  i.e.,  the  two  oxen 
and  the  ploughman.  The  ploughman  who  supplies  one 
'life'  gets  the  use  of  the  plough  for  one  day,  and  has  to 
plough  for  two  more  for  the  owner  of  the  two  oxen.  In 
some  tracts  the  plough  is  considered  to  have  a  '  life, '  and 
the  ploughman  has  to  plough  three  days  for  the  owner  of  the 
plough  and  oxen,  before  he  gets  the  use  of  the  plough  for 
one  day  for  himself.  If  the  owner  has  two  ploughs  working 
together,  one  of  which  is  driven  by  his  own  servant  and  one 
by  a  jljltiva,  the  latter  has  to  plough  for  five  (or  seven)  days 
for  the  employer,  and  can  then  take  both  ploughs  into  his  own 
fields  for  one  day.  A  man  who  owns  one  ox  and  borrows 
a  second  from  another  man  is  said  to  plough  hy  j'iuhapar  or 
partnership  in  lives.  If  he  does  all  the  ploughing,  he 
works  for  two  days  for  himself  and  for  one  day  for  the  man 
who  has  lent  him  the  second  ox.  If  the  two  men  share  a 
pair  of  oxen,  but  each  do  their  own  ploughing,  they  each 
take  the  plough  for  a  day  in  turn. 

•119.  Casuvil  labourers  are  known  as  baniharoK  bhiitia, 
,  .  and  are   usually    paid   in  kind   at  the 

l..nbourer?. 

rate   of    one    and  a    half   kathds    of 
unbusked  rice  for  a  man,  one  kathd  for  a  woman  and  half 


WAGES.  l6l 

kdtlia  for  a  cliild  yielding  4^,  3  and  i^>  lbs.  of  husked  rice 
respectively.  These  rates  have  not  varied  within  living 
memory.  Women  are  usually  employed  for  weeding  and 
harvesting  the  rice  crop.  At  the  harvest  they  receive  a 
present  of  a  sheaf  from  which  three  pounds  of  husked 
grain  may  be  obtained.  Casual  labourers  usually  work  for 
about  eight  hours  a  day.  The  periods  of  least  demand  for 
labour  are  the  months  of  January  and  February  after  the 
harvesting  of  the  rice  crop  and  May  and  June  from  t'le  time 
when  the  spring  crops  have  been  threshed  till  the  weeding 
of  rice  begins. 

120,  The  kotwar  or  village  watchman  is  still  paid    in 
grain  at  the  rate  of  a  large  kdthd  of 

V  iliage  servants, 

unhusked  rice  (yielding  4^  lbs.  husked) 
per  rupee  of  his  rental  from  each  cultivator  and  a  sheaf  of 
rice  and  wheat  at  the  harvests.  He  has  a  field  rent-free 
from  the  village  proprietor  and  has  the  right  of  measuring 
grain  sold  in  the  village,  for  which  he  is  given  a  pice  or  a 
handful  of  grain  for  each  rupee  of  the  purchase-price.  At 
sowing-time  in  the  Mungeli  tahsil  he  gets  a  little  grain  which 
is  known  as  bijphuti  or  seed-breaking.  The  kotwar  must  be 
a  man  of  low  caste  as  he  must  go  and  summon  the  Chamar 
and  other  low-caste  tenants  to  be  present  when  their  attend- 
ance is  required  and  it  would  be  derogatory  for  a  high-caste 
man  to  do  this.  The  kotwar  is  also  known  as  Tehlu  (  one 
who  serves),  Rapta  (one  who  makes  a  report),  Gurhait  (he 
who  is  in  charge  of  the  giirlii  or  travellers'  rest-house),  and 
Dwaria  or  door-keeper.  The  Lobar  or  blacksmith  receives 
30  to  45  lbs.  of  husked  rice  from  the  cultivators  for  each 
plough  of  land  of  four  bullocks,  and  at  threshing-time,  a 
present  of  a  winnowing-fan  full  of  grain.  He  makes  and 
mends  the  iron  implements  of  agriculture,  the  cultivator 
supplying  the  charcoal  and  new  iron  when  required.  In 
the  Mungeli  tahsil  the  rate  is  90  lbs.-  of  rice  per  plough. 
Recently  many  cultivators  have  taken  to  paying  the  black- 
smith  in  cash   for    such  work  as  they   require,  instead   of 

Y 


|62  BILASPIJR.       LOANS,    PRICES,    WAGES,    ETC. 

making  a  grain  contiibution.  The  barber  usually  receives 
a  plot  of  land  from  the  village  proprietor  and  from  the 
cultivators  30  lbs.  of  husked  rice  annually  for  each  adult 
male  and  1 5  lbs.  for  a  child.  The  washerman  receives  a 
plot  of  land  from  the  malguzar,  but  the  cultivators  do 
not  employ  him  as  a  rule  except  on  the  occasion  of  a  birth 
or  a  death,  when  he  washes  the  clothes  which  have  been 
rendered  impure  by  this  occurrence.  He  is  paid  four 
annas  at  the  birth  of  a  boy  and  three  annas  at  that  of 
a  girl,  and  a  rupee  and  eight  annas  at  the  deaths  of 
a  man  and  a  woman  respectively.  When  the  first  child 
of  a  newly-married  couple  is  born  the  Dhobi  puts  a  brass 
lota  or  vessel  on  the  top  of  a  post  with  some  coloured 
cloth  over  it  tied  in  the  shape  of  a  flag,  and  goes  round  to 
the  houses  of  the  relatives  of  the  family  where  he  is  given 
a  present.  And  when  a  death  has  occurred  he  is  given 
a  piece  of  cloth  from  the  household  of  each  relative  who 
attends  the  funeral.  The  cash  rates  for  washing  clothes 
re  usually  half  an  anna  a  cloth  in  Bilaspur  and  two  clothes 
for  a  pice  in  the  interior.  The  hides  of  the  village  cattle 
go  to  one  of  the  Kanaujia  Chamars  of  the  village  who  is 
known  as  the  Paikaha.  The  other  Chamars  do  not  get 
any  of  the  hides  of  the  village  cattle,  but  the  Satnamis 
sometimes  take  a  half  or  the  whole  of  those  of  their  own. 
If  he  supplies  the  leather  ropes  and  neck-thongs  to  the 
cultivators  the  Paikaha  is  given  30  lbs.  of  rice  per  plough,  but 
usually  people  pay  him  for  what  they  want  in  cash.  The 
Baiga  or  priest  of  the  village  gods  receives  a  piece  of  land 
from  the  village  proprietor  and  presents  from  the  cultivators 
at  harvest. 

MANUFACTURES. 

121.  The  tasar  silk  industry  is  more  important  in  Bilas- 
pur than  in  any  other   District  and  the 

Tasar  silk.  •' 

quality  of  the  silk  produced  is  better- 
The  principal  centres  of  silk-weaving  are  Bilaspur,  Khokra, 
Champa,  Chhuri,  Akaltaraand  Baloda.  The  fringes  of  men's 


MANUFACTURES.  1 63 

and  women's  body-cloths  are  sometimes  dyed  with  patterns  of 
crimson,  pale-blue  or  yellow,  but  the  body  of  the  cloth  is  left 
its  natural  colour.  Some  weavers  have  recently  taken  to  the 
manufacture  of  check  patterns  which  they  make  by  running 
narrow  lines  of  crimson  or  black  along  and  across  the  cloth. 
The  price  of  the  cloth  varies  from  12  annas  to  two  rupees  a 
yard  and  drilled  cloth  is  more  expensive  still.  It  is  consi- 
dered that  1000  cocoons  supply  enough  silk  for  12  yards  of 
the  thin  cloth  usually  woven.  The  people  consider  tasar 
silk  as  a  sacred  material  and  wear  it  while  they  are  taking 
food.  It  is  exported  in  small  quantities  to  all  parts  of  India 
and  even  to  China. 

122.  The     following  description    of    the    silk- worm    ii^ 
taken  from  Mr.  F.  C.   Dewar's  mono- 
Breeding  of  the  silk-       ^^pi^    oj^    tl^e   3ill^   industries    of  the 

worm.  °     '^ 

Central  Provinces  (1901).  The  tasar 
silk-worm  is  reared  by  Chamars  and  Kewats.  The  seed 
cocoons  are  usually  kept  over  from  the  previous  winter,  the 
pupa  lying  dormant  in  them,  and  are  hatched  out  in  June  in 
a  room.  The  female  moths  are  kept  from  flying  away  and 
after  being  visited  by  the  male  moths  they  lay  eggs  on  leaves 
of  the  palds  tree  {Butea  froiidosa)  which  are  scattered  about 
the  room.  The  branches  carrying  the  eggs  are  taken  to  the 
forest  and  fastened  below  other  branches  to  protect  the  eggs 
from  the  sun  and  from  the  attacks  of  birds.  Or  sometimes 
the  eggs  are  hatched  out  in  earthen  pots  and  the  worms 
carried  to  the  trees.  As  they  strip  a  tree  of  leaves  they  have 
to  be  transferred  to  another,  and  during  the  period  of  feeding 
they  must  be  constantly  watched,  and  the  rearers  build  huts 
in  the  forest  during  the  rains.  Tliey  still  in  places  observe 
ascetic  rules  which  arc  supposed  to  propitiate  the  worm  and 
ensure  a  good  crop  of  cocoons.  They  do  not  wash,  shave  or 
drink  liquor  until  the  winter  crop  is  gathered  in  and  their 
fare  is  salt  and  rice  onl}'.  Sometimes  they  also  abstain  from 
conjugal  intercourse.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  worms. 
Mr.  Dewar  states,  are  always  eaten  by  birds,  and  occasionally . 


l64  IJILAbl'UK,       LOANS,    PRlCLb,    WAGtb,    ETC. 

especially  if  liic  season  be   dry,  disease  decimates   or  even 
exterminates  the  crop.     Alter  the  worm  has  led  for  from  35 
to  45  days  he  begins  to  spin  his  cocoon  or  as  the  natives  put 
it  '  lie  binds  himself.'    Mr.  Dewar  quotes  the  following  des- 
cription of  the  silk-worm  :— '  Each  species  of  silk-worm  has 
'  two  stores  of  silk,  one  on  each  side  of  the  alimentary  canal, 
'  and  below  its  mouth  it  has  two  so-called  spinnarets  or  orifices 
'  through  whicii  the  silk  issues  simultaneously  in  fine  parallel 
«  filaments.     As  the   silk  is  drawn  out  of  the  stores  the  worm 
'  coats  it  with  a  varnish,  technically  called  gum,  which  contains 
'  a  brownish-yellow  colouring  matter.     The  tasar    worm  in 
'  spinning  his  cocoon  takes  short  sweeps  of  his  head  from  side 
'  to  side,  depositing  the  silk  very  closely  in  parallel  fibres  as  he 
'  does  so.     Besides  the   gum  which  coats  the  silk  the  worm 
'  secretes  at  intervals  a  cementing  fluid  which  it  kneads  by  an 
'expanding  motion  of  its  body  through  the  whole  cocoon    to 
'  consolidate  and  harden  it.     This  cement  gives  to  the  cocoon 
'  its  drab  colour.'     Tiie"  spinning  only  takes   three  or   four 
days  so  that  if  the  worms  have  been  hatched  out  in  June,  the 
first  crop  of  cocoons  is  ready  about  the  middle  of  August.  The 
development  of  the  pupa   in  these  cocoons  is  rapid  and  the 
moth  emerges   in  20    to  25  days.     The  breeding    processes 
arc  then  repeated,  but  the  crop  of  worms  is,  of  course,  much 
larger   in    September  than  it    was    in  July.     Finall}'    about 
the    middle   of  October  the  winter  crop  of  cocoons  is  ready 
and  this  is  sold  to  the  weavers  for  the  production  of  silk. 
123.  The  Koshta,  I\Ir.  Dewar  continues,  usually  secures 
his    supply  for  the   3'ear    at  the    local 
Spinning  and  weaving     ^^.ggkly    bazar.     The    cocoons    as    he 

tlie  silk.  '' 

receives  them  from  the  breeder  are  hard, 
gritty  and  as  unlike  silk  as  can  well  be  conceived.  His  first 
business  is  to  soften  tliem  so  that  they  can  be  unwound,  and 
to  kill  the  pupa  inside,  wliich  might  otherwise  emerge  when 
its  natural  winter  exposure  is  interfered  with.  To  eficct 
this  the  cocoons  arc  first  dried  in  the  sun  and  then  boiled 
or  btcamed,   alum  and  the  allies   of  some  oilseed  plant  being 


MANUF^CTUREb.  16$ 

usually  mixed  with  the  water.  When  properly  softened 
cold  water  is  poured  over  them  to  remove  the  ash  and  they 
are  then  set  to  dry.  The  gummy  matter  is  now  gone  and 
the  cocoon  is  a  soft  brown  skin  with  the  dead  pupa  inside. 
They  have  next  to  be  unwound  and  this  business  is  done 
by  women.  After  the  outside  silk  has  been  pulled  off  a 
filament  from  a  cocoon  which  has  been  properly  softened 
will  come  away  steadily  and  easily.  The  women  gathers 
the  filaments  from  four  to  eight  cocoons  together,  according 
to  the  strength  of  ihread  required,  into  her  left  hand  and 
winds  them  on  to  a  roller  which  she  holds  in  her  right  hand. 
When  breaks  occur  the  winder  bends  over  the  saucer  hold- 
ing the  cocoons  and  with  wonderful  accuracy  pounces  on 
the  broken  end  of  the  fibre,  dips  her  fingers  into  a  bowl  of 
tamarind  and  water  which  is  at  hand,  rolls  the  end  into  her 
Ihread  and  spins  on.  It  is  this  branch  of  the  manufacture 
of  tasar  silk,  Wardle  remarks,  which  is  so  defectively  treated 
in  India,  and  the  implements  represented  ^  show  how  rudely 
the  manipulation  is  managed  as  compared  with  the  more 
finished  reeling  appliances  of -the  Italians.  The  single 
threads  are  still  too  weak  to  be  woven  and  four  are  usually 
twisted  together  first  in  pairs  and  the  double  threads  into  one. 
Throughout  these  processes  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the 
worker  count  for  a  good  deal  in  removing  irregularities,  in 
twisting  the  thread  and  in  sizing  it.  The  thread  turned  out 
by  the  best  workers  is  for  such  primitive  appliances  very 
good.  In  tasar  there  is  a  peculiarity  which  tells  against 
smoothness  and  roundness  as  shown  by  the  following 
quotation  ' ;  '  There  is  a  striking  peculiarity  about  the  fibre 
'  of  tasar  silk.     I  have  carefully  and  thoroughly  examined  it 

*  under  the  microscope,  and  find  undoubtedly  that  it  is  almost 

*  flat  and   not  round  as  is  the  case  in  the  silk   produced  by 


^  In  plate  LVl,  'Handbook   on    tlie    collection    of  wild    silks   in  India, 
Kensington  Museum. 

-   Munograpli  on  Silk  Ii)ilu>ti  ics,  para    j6,  f|tioliiij,',  (iliu  '  WhiJIc. 


1 66  BILASPUn.       LOANS,    PRICES,    VVAGtb,    ETC. 

'  the  mulbcriy-fed  worm.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  to  this 
'  property  that  tasar  silk  owes  its  glossy  or  vitreous  look, 
'reflecting  a  little  glare  of  light  from  the  angle  of  incidence 
'  on  its  Hat  surface,  whilst  the  mulberry  silk  fibre,  being 
'round,  reflects  the  light  in  all  directions.  By  some  this 
'  property  is  considered  a  drawback,  but  by  the  time  the 
'  fibre  has  become  modified  and  the  flatness  diffused  in  the 
'loom,  I  think  the  lustre  of  the  cloth  is  enhanced  by  it- 
'  This  tape-like  appearance  gives  the  fibre  this  disadvantage, 
'  that  it  is  less  homogeneous  than  the  round  fibre  of  the 
'  mulberry  silk,  and  I  find  an  undoubted  tendency  in  it  to 
'  split  up  into  smaller  fibrets  of  which  the  fibre  is  evidently 
'  composed,  causing  the  silk  to  swell  out  when  subjected  to 
'  severe  dyeing  processes,  particularly  the  bleaching  one  of 
'  recent  date.' 

124.  Coarse   cotton  cloth,  known  as  khddi,  is  woven  by 

Koshtas,  Gandas  and  Pankas,  mill-spun 
Cotton  clotl).  ,  ,  ,     .  ,  ,  ,  ,      /^ 

thread  being  almost  solely  used.  Cotton 
cloths  with  borders  of  tasar  silk  are  also  produced.  The 
best  cloth  is  made  at  Bamnidih  and  Karnod,  and  Bilaspur 
Chandarpur,  Champa,  Baloda,  Takhatpur,  Nawagarh,  Mungeli 
and  Kliokra  are  other  centres.  There  is  no  separate  dyeing 
industry  and  the  Koshtas  either  dye  their  thread  before 
weaving  or  purchase  it  ready,  coloured.  White  cloths 
with  red  borders  are  \ery  commonly  worn  by  the  country 
people. 

125.  The  principal    centres    for  gold  and  silver    work 

are  Bilaspur,  Champa  and   Ratanpur 
Metals  and  oilier  in-      Ratanpur    has    a    bell-metal    industry 

where  a  bright  light-coloured  polish 
is  given  to  the  surface  of  the  metal  as  in  Mandla.  The 
vessels  are  brittle  and  break  when  dropped.  Small 
quantities  of  iron-ore  are  smelted  in  some  localities  in 
the  zamlndaris  and  agricultural  implements  are  made  from 
the  iron.  Glass  bangles  are  made  in  Ratanpur,  Mungeli 
and  other  villages  and  bangles    of   lac    in  Ratanpur.     The 


MANUFACTURES,  1 67 

village  Kumhars  make  the  various  earthen  vessel*;  which 
are  in  common  use  and  also  pipes  with  bowls  and  mouthpieces 
like  English  ones. 

1 26.  A  match  factory,  owned  by  a  Mr.  Amrit  Lai,  Gujarati 
Kunbl,  has  been  working  in  Kota  near 

Kota  match  factory.  ...  ry,, 

KargI  road  station  since  1902.  Ihe 
neighbouring  forests  contain  soft  timber  o^  the  sd/e/i  (Boswe/- 
Ha  serrata)  and  sonar  [Bombax  malabaricuni)  trees,  which 
is  suitable  for  the  production  of  matches.  The  capital  of 
the  factory  is  reported  to  be  Rs.  1,20,000  and  the  outturn 
about  500  gross  of  boxes  of  matches  daily.  The  goods  were 
at  first  of  inferior  quality  but  improvements  have  been 
effected  and  they  are  sent  to  most  parts  of  the  Central 
Provinces  and  Berar.  The  factory  has  now  however  to 
face  the  competition  of  another  recently  started  at  Ellich- 
pur. 

127.  The  following  scale  of  mea- 

Weights  and  measures. 

sures  is  employed  in  grain  transac- 
tions:— 

I  chanthia     =      18^    chittacks. 

I  kdtJid  =       4      chatithias   or  4    seers    chittacks 

(about  9^  lbs.) 

I  khandi       =     20      kdthds  (about  2\  maunds). 

I   crdra  ==     20      khandis. 

O  m 

In  Bilaspur  town  grain  is  now  sold  by  weight.  The 
wages  of  farm-servants  and  village  servants  are  paid  by  a 
smaller  measure,  known  as  the  chaltu  or  bhiitid  kdthd  which 
has  a  capacity  of  2  seers  4^  chittacks  or  half  the  ordinary 
one.  In  Pendra  this  measure  is  in  general  use  for  all  pur- 
poses, and  is  known  as  the  kunai  kdthd.  In  Chandarpur  the 
Sambalpur  measure  the  tdmbi,  which  has  a  capacity  of  2 
seers,  is  current.  The  khandi  contains  20  tdmbis  and  is 
thus  equivalent  to  a  Government  maund.  The  equivalent 
weights  for  the  above  measures  of  capacity  are  for  husked 
rice,     The  varying  quantities  of  other  grains  which  go  to  a 


1 68 


liUASPCR.        LOANS,    PKICF.S.    WACKS.    FTC 


kdtlid  measure  arc  given  as  follows  from  Mr.  Carey's  Raipur 
Settlement  Report :— 


Seers. 

Chittacks. 

Unliusked  rice     .,. 

Wheat 

Gram 

Linseed 

Til    ... 

Musked  kodon     ... 

Juar   .. 

3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
4 

4 
5 
6 

II 

9 
9 

0 

The  ordinary  katlid  thus  contains  4  seers  9  chittacks  of 
husked  rice  and  3  seers  4  chittacks  of  dhdn  or  seed  rice. 
X  k/iaiidio^  d/idn  gives  lO^  kdtlids  of  husked  rice  and  the 
difference  in  measurement  is  therefore  nearly  50  per  cent. 
iiut  as  shown  above:  a  M^?;/<:/J  of  <77/«/«  weighs  65  seers  or 
130  lbs.  at  3  seers  4  chittacks  per  kdthd.  It  gives  \o\  kdthds 
of  husked  rice,  w  ighing  nearly  48  seers  at  4  seers  9 
chittacks  per  kdthd.  The  loss  in  weight  is  therefore  26  per 
cent '  The  word  kdtlid  is  derived  from  kdth,  wood,  and 
signifies  a  wooden  measure,  tdnibi  is  probably  from  tdmba, 
copper,  and  kJiandi  is  the  equivalent  of  the  English  '  score.' 
The  Gondl  kos  contains  from  3i  to  3  miles  in  Bilaspur  and 
the  Government  kos  of  two  miles  is  known  as  the  Sarkari  kos. 
128.  The  District  has  about  180  weekly  markets.  The 
cattle  bazar  of  Bamnidih  is  the  most 
important  in  the  District,  about  700 
head  being  shown  here  every  week  on  an  average.  The 
cattle-markets  of  Ganiari,  Gond  Khami  and  Bilaspur  come 
next  in  importance,  about  500  head  being  brought  to  each. 
Sales  are  registered  at  all  these  places  and  also  at  Kaneri, 
Pandatarai,  Setganga,  Damapur,  Takhatpur,  Mungell  and 
Kumhari  Munda,   a  uniform   fee   of   i^   pies  per  rupee  of 

^  The  above   calculation    is  taken    from    Mr.    Blenkinsop's   Settlement 
Report  on  the  Drug  Tahsil  (,1903). 


Markets. 


MANUFACTURES.  1 69 

the  sale  price  being  charged.  The  aggregate  fees  at  all 
the  markets  amount  to  about  Rs.  450  per  week  except  in 
the  rainy  season.  Herds  of  cattle  and  young  male  buffaloes 
are  driven  by  road  from  the  Northern  Districts  tiirough 
Rewah  by  Komoghat  and  through  M  audi  a  by  C  ha  km  i  ghat 
in  the  north-western  corner  of  the  District  by  wandering 
Hasdewas  and  brought  for  sale  to  the  markets  of  Bamnidlh, 
Ganiari  and  Bilaspur.  Many  old  and  worn-out  cattle  are 
now  sold  for  slaugliter  to  the  butchers  at  Bamnidih  market. 
Pendra  is  the  principal  bazar  in  the  zamindaris  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  grain,  lac  and  other  kinds  of  forest  produce 
is  done  here.  Lac  is  also  sold  at  Champa  and  Kota,  and 
country  iron  at  Pali  in  Lapha  and  Sohagpur  in  Korba. 
Pandatarai  in  Pandaria  zamindari  is  a  market  for  Pandaria, 
and  Kawardha  uplands.  Bamnidlh,  Akaltara,  Seorinarayan, 
Baloda,  Chandarpur  and  Dhuma  are  important  markets  for 
grain  and  other  produce.  A  cloth  bazar  is  held  at  Kotmi 
between  Akaltara  and  Paraghat  stations. 

129.   Eight  annual  fairs  are   recorded   as  being   held   in 
the    District,    but  they  are  all  of  a  reli- 

Fairs. 

gious  character  and  none  has  any 
especial  commercial  importance.  The  largest  fair  is  that  of 
Pithampur  which  is  held  on  the  2nd  day  of  Holi  and  lasts  for 
about  five  days.  There  is  a  Mahadeo  here  found  by  a  Teli  who 
is  chiefly  worshipped  for  removing  pain  in  the  stomach.  The 
attendance  here  is  said  to  be  .|0,000.  The  Kabirpanthls 
have  a  fair  at  Kudarmal  on  the  Hasdo  river  in  Korba  zamin- 
dari, which  begins  on  the  last  day  of  Magh  (January- 
Februar}')  and  lasts  about  a  week.  Kudarmal  is  said  to 
contain  the  grave  of  Churaman,  the  son  of  Dharam  Das, 
Kablr's  principal  disciple  and  successor.  Converts  are  here 
initiated  into  the  Kablrpanthi  sect  and  temporary  shops  are 
opened  for  the  sale  of  sweetmeats  and  other  provisions.  Tlie 
Satnami  Chamars  have  a  fair  at  Ratanpur  on  the  same  date, 
when  they  come  and  bathe  in  the  Dulahra  tank.  They  also 
throw   the  bones  of    their   dead   into  the  tank   and  cut    their 

z 


iyO  niLASPUR.       LOANS,    I'KK  1  S,    VVAGES,    ETC. 

chikiren's  hair  here  At  Helpan,  about  20  miles  noit]\-west 
of  l^ilfispur,  a  gathering  is  held  also  at  the  end  of  Magh  and 
pilgrims  come  and  bathe  in  the  small  stream  here,  which  is 
believed  to  be  of  the  waters  of  the  Nerbudda  ;  it  is  thought 
that  the  sacred  river  flowed  underground  from  Amarkantak 
at  the  request  of  a  holy  man.  Vessels  of  bell-metal  and  lac 
toys  from  Mandla  are  brought  here  for  sale.  Other  small 
fairs  are  held  at  Seorinarayan,  Chhuri,  Bhatgaon  and 
Kharod. 

TRAUb:. 

130.  Mr.  Chisholm   wrote    of    the   District    in    1868   as 
follows  : — 

Traile  in  past  years. 

'  Tiie  chief  wealth  of  tlie  District  consists  in  its  agricul- 

*  tural  produce.     'I'he  adventurous   carrier  class  of   Banjaras 

*  following  their  strings  of  bullocks  through  the  hilly  wilds 
'  which  shut  in  tlie  Chhattisgarh  plain  in  order  that  they  may 
'  re'urn  laden  with  grain  have  not  inaptly  termed  this  coun- 

*  try  "  The  Land  of  Plenty.  "  Tiiey  find  liere  a  surplus  pro- 
'  duce  which  in  the  absence  of  facilities  for  export  seems  almost 
'  inexhaustible,  for  in  a  great  number  of  villages  they  cannot 
'  fail  to  observe  the  prominent  and  capacious  grain  stores  well 
'raised  above  the  ground,  walled  and  thatched,  and  containing 
'  from  50  to  200  cartloads  of  the   great   staple,  rice.      Wheat 

*  and  oilseeds  are  also  produced  in  great  abundance,  and  there 

*  is  a  kind  of  reckless  improvidence  in  many  places  in  feeding, 

*  free  of  cost,  all  travellers  who  pass,  that  indicates  a  condition 
'in  which  it  ma^'  be  said  that  want,  using  it  in  the  sense  of 
'food,  is  almost  unknown.'  The  District  was,  however,  at 
this  time  cut  off  on  all  sides  from  any  market  for  its  produce, 
and  even  the  most  important  tratfic  routes  were  rugged  and 
inaccessible,  quite  unfit  for  wheeled  carriage  and  admitting  of 
export  and  import  by  means  of  pack-bullocks  only  for  but  six 
mouths  of  the  year. 

Mr.    Chisholm    valued    the    exports    at    this    period    at 
Ks.  y\  lakhs  annually    and  the  imports  at    Rs.  5  lakhs.      He 


TRADE.  171 

wrote,  however,  '  A  large  export  trade  cannot  be  calculated 
'  upon  as  a  permanent  feature  for  so  long  as  pack-bullocks 
'remain  the  sole  means  of  transport  for  produce,  it  is  only 
'  profitable  to  carry  grain  from  Chhattlsgarh,  when  prices 
'  westward  have  risen  to  a  more  than  ordinarily  high  rate,  and 

*  with  the  present  means  of  communication,  prices  at  Jubbul- 

*  pore  must  be  at  least  three  times  what  they  are  here  to  make 
'exportation  remunerative,' 

It  is  noticeable  that  at  this  time  cotton  is  recorded  as 
having  been  exported  to  the  extent  of  about  10,000  maunds 
annually.  The  lac  trade  was  also  an  important  item,  and 
the  average  exports  diu-ing  the  years  1864-65  to  1867-68 
were  nearly  15,000  maunds  valued  at  about  Rs.  2^  lakhs. 
The  bulk  of  the  trade  went  west  to  the  Jubbulpore  market, 
al)out  140  miles  distant. 

In  1887  Mr.  Carey  remarked  on  the  District  trade  in 
these  terms :  — 

'  1  he  construction  of  the  railway  to  Nagpur  and  its 
'extension  to  R;ij-Nandgaon  have  given  a  great  stimulus  to 
'  the  trade  of  the  District.     It  is  currently  reported   that   less 

*  than    30  years  ago  grain  used  to  rot  on  the  threshing-floors 

*  for  want  of  a  market.  During  the  last  six  years  some  seven 
'  or   eight  firms  of   Cutchis   have   established    themselves   in 

*  Mungell.  The  Cutchi  imports  salt  and  exports  grain  and 
'  oilseeds.  A  large  part  of  the  produce  of  the  Mungell  tahsli 
'is  taken  by  tenants  to  I^aj-Nandgaon  and  sold  there  and  the 

*  Madras  cartmen,  who  came  annually  from  Kamptee  to  Bilas- 

*  pur  long  before  the  Cutchi,  still  carry  on  a  certain  trade  on 
'  their  own  account.' 

The  opening  of  the  Katni  Railway  in  1891  was  followed 
by  a  sudden  rush  of  grain  out  of  the  District.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  rice  were  sent  to  the  North-Western  Provinces  by 
rail,  and  the  Banjara  carriers,  who  once  passed  along  in 
thousands  carrying  rice  and  wheat  to  the  Jubbulpore  market, 
were  completely  ousted.  This  line  also  brought  the  hitherto 
inaccessible  forests  of  the    northern  zamindaris  within  reach 


172  HII.ASPDk.        LOANS,    I'KICES,    WAGKS,    ETC. 

of  a  iDinkel  ami  a  brisk  trade  in  timber  at  once  sprang  up. 
Owing  indeed  to  tlie  lack  of  ordinary  prudence  on  the  part 
of  the  zamindars  this  traflk  lia.s  been  rather  disastrous  ihan 
otliervvise,  and  their  forests  have  been  largely  denuded  of  all 
trees  v/orth  cutting. 

131.  The  statistics  of  rail-borne  trade   have  been   com- 
piled for   the  five  years   from    1902  to 

Kail-borne  trade.     Ex-        ^^    ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^  j^^  ^j^^  Statements 
ports  of  gram.  ■'       ' 

on  the  following  pages.     They  do  not, 
however,    adequately    represent    the    trade    of   the    District, 
because  a  large  proportion  of  the  produce  of  Mungeli  tahsil  is 
taken  to   Bhatapara  station  which    is  now  in   Raipur.     The 
statement    of  exports   shows  that  in   1906  the  exports  were 
nearly  one  and  half  million  maunds   of    the   value  of  Ks.  71 
lakhs,  which  is  equivalent  to  Ks.  7-1 1  per  head  of  population. 
In  1905  the  exports  were  slightly  larger  and  reached  Rs.  yy 
lakhs.     It  is  probable  that  even  this  figure  is  greatly   below 
the  amount  to  which  the  exports  of  the  District  would  attain 
after  a  few  good  seasons.     The  imports  in  1906  were  nearly 
6oo,coo  maunds  of  the  value  of  Rs.  66  lakhs,  and  the  excess 
of  exports  over  imports  was  therefore  trifling,  and  this  is  in 
itself  sufficient  to  show  that  trade  is  not  in  a   normal  condi- 
tion.    Rice  is  the  principal  product  of  the  District,  and  in 
1906  the  exports  of  it  amounted  to  nearly    500,000  maunds 
of  the  value   of  nearly  Rs.  16  lakhs.     It  is  sent  to  Bombay 
and  also  to  Berar  and  Northern  India.     The  exports  of  wheat 
amounted  to  200,000  maunds  of  the  value  of  nearly  6  lakhs  in 
1905,  which  was  a  much  better  year  for  this  crop  than  1906. 
Other    grains  and   pulses    were   exported  to  the  value  of  8^ 
lakhs  in  1905.     The  exports  of  linseed  were  93,000  maunds 
valued  at  nearly  4  lakhs  in  1905,  and  those  of  sesamum  were 
61,000    maunds   valued    at    3^    lakhs    in    1906,    this    being 
the  highest   figure  in    the  case  of  each   oilseed.      Both   are 
sent   to    Bombay    for    the    foreign   trade.      The    exports   of 
.i,'-///   in     1906   were    3000   maunds  valued     at    a    lakh    of 
rupees. 


TRADE. 


173 


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nil.ASrUR.       LOANS,    PKICKS,    WAGES,    ETC. 


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TRADE.  175 

132.  Timber  was    exported   to  the   extent   of    129,000 

maunds  of  the  value  of  Rs.  2^  lakhs  in 

Timber     and     other      iqo6,  having  declined  from  3.Uakhs  in 

exports.  :?       )  o  ^- 

1902.  Sal  and  bljasal  timbers  are 
principally  exported,  sleepers  from  Korba  and  Chhuri  being 
sent  to  Calcutta  and  logs  and  poles  for  building  to  the  United 
Provinces.  O'i  other  forest  produce  lac  is  by  far  the  most 
important  and  in  1906  it  was,  next  to  rice,  the  most  valuable 
staple  of  the  District  trade.  In  tiiis  year  30,000  maunds  of 
the  value  of  nearly  13  lakhs  were  exported,  while  in  1905, 
the  trade  was  even  more  valuable,  the  exports  reaching  Rs.  17 
laklis  or  2\  lakhs  more  than  the  value  of  the  rice  exported 
in  that  year.  Lac  is  largely  produced  in  the  forests  of  the 
zaniindari  estates.  The  exports  of  myrobalams,  which  are 
sent  to  Bombay,  have  averaged  17,000  maunds  of  the  value 
of  Rs.  23,000  during  the  last  five  years  About  14,000 
maunds  of  mahua  of  the  value  of  Rs.  48,000  are  annually 
exported.  Among  other  articles  of  forest  produce  are  bagai 
or  bhabar  grass  {Bollinia  enopoda)  vvliich  is  sent  to  Calcutta 
to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  As  in  other  parts 
of  the  Province,  a  brisk  trade  has  recently  sprung  up  in  the 
slaughter  of  cattle,  and  the  export  of  dried  meat,  hides  and 
horns.  1  he  meat  is  sent  in  large  quantities  to  Burma  and 
the  bones  to  Bombay,  these  being  ultimately  converted  into 
manure  or  into  retiaing  charcoal.  Tlie  yearly  exports  of 
hides  average  about  5000  maunds  of  the  value  of  more  than 
I  ^  lakhs.  A  number  of  Mulianimadan  hide  contractors  do 
business  in  the  Janjgir  tahsTl.  The  price  of  a  cowhide  is 
three  or  four  rupees,  and  six  to  eight  rupees  for  that  of  a 
buffalo.  Horns  are  exported  for  making  combs  and 
knives.  Small  quantities  of  tasar  silk  cloth  are  sent  to  all 
parts  of  India,  and  matches  from  the  Kota  factory  are 
despatched  to  most  Districts  of  tlie  Central  Provinces  and 
Berar.  The  feathers  of  the  common  white  bagla  bird  were 
also  collected  and  sent  away,  but  this  traffic  has  now  been 
stopped. 


176  niLASPtlR.       LOANS,    TRICFS,    WACFS,    FTC, 

133.   Of   the   total    imports   of   Rs.   66   lakhs    in    1906, 
cotton    manufactures    came    to    nearly 

Imports.  -TV     •  4        r  r 

Ks.  17  lakhs.  I  he  imports  of  huropean 
twist  and  yarn  increased  from  790  maunds  in  1902  to  2500 
mnunds  in  1906,  while  those  of  Indian  thread  declined  from 
18, coo  maunds  in  1902  to  14,000  in  1906.  The  imports  of 
European  piece-goods  rose  from  5000  maunds  ot  the  value 
of  3^  lakhs  in  1902  to  iO,ooo  mounds  valued  at  7  lakhs  in 
1906  and  those  of  Indian  piece-goods  from  0600  maunds 
valued  at  Ks.  3*30  lakhs  in  1902  to  8700  maunds  valued 
at  Rs  440  lakhs  in  J 906.  The  Indian  cloth  is  obtained 
principaUy  from  the  Nagpur  and  Badnera  mills.  1  he  imports 
of  metals  are  14,000  maunds  valued  at  nearly  two  lakhs 
English  iron  comes  from  Bombay  and  brass  vessels  are  brought 
from  Bhandara,  Mirzapur  and  Jubbulpore.  The  imports  of 
kerosine  oil  have  increased  from  14,000  maunds  of  the  value 
of  Rs.  62,000  in  1902  to  23,000  maunds  valued  at  more  than 
a  lakh  in  1906.  It  has  now  almost  entirely  supplanted 
sesamuni  oil  as  an  illuminant,  but  vviien  burnt  in  open  saucers 
in  the  native  fashion  the  smoke  is  said  to  atfect  the  eyes,  and 
several  instances  are  alleged  of  students  who  have  had  their 
sight  injured  in  this  manner.  Some  people,  consequently, 
still  prefer  to  use  sesamum  oil.  Salt  was  foruierly  biought 
from  Cuttack  by  boat  to  Seorlnarayan,  but  is  now  imported 
from  Ganjam  and  from  Bombay  by  rail.  Gur  or  unrefined 
sugar  is  obtained  from  Northern  India  and  also  from  Ciihind- 
wara  and  Beiijl.  1  obacco  is  still  brought  from  Ganjam  by 
road  in  small  quantities  being  loaded  on  butialoes,  and  is  also 
obtained  from  Bengal.  About  3000  maunds  of  turmeric, 
valued  at  Rs.  22,000,  are  imported  every  year  from  Cawnpore 
and  Sambalpur.  Areca  nuts  and  cloves  are  brought  from  the 
Deccan.  Cattle  are  imported  from  Sohagpur  in  Rewah  by 
road  and  buffaloes  are  driven  in  large  herds  from  Saugor, 
Damoh,  Nar^inghpur  and  Panna  by  the  wandering  Basdewas 
to  the  Ganiari  and  Bamnidih  markets.  The  returns  show 
imports  of   raw    Indian   silk  to    the    value    of   nearly    Rs.    20 


TRADE.  '77 

lakhs  in  1906,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  these  figures  can  be 
accurate. 

134.  The   principal  railway   stations  are   Pendra  Road, 

Bilaspur,  Akaltara  and  Champa.   Pendra 

Railway  .stations.  ,       .  .     ,,       r  .      \     ^  ..\  • 

has  the  largest  bulk  of  exports,  but  tins 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  its  trade  is  principally  in  timber  whose 
weight  is  very  great  in  proportion  to  its  value.  In  1906  the 
exports  from  Bilaspur  were  258,000  maunds,  from  Akaltara 
250,000  and  from  Champa  184,000.  Bilaspur  has  now, 
therefore,  a  larger  trade  than  either  Akaltara  or  Champa, 
though  a  few  years  ago  it  is  said  to  have  been  surpassed  by 
both  these  stations.  Some  of  the  smaller  stations  as  Kota, 
Naila  and  Baraduar  also  have  a  substantial  amount  of  trade. 
The  exports  of  Naila  in  particular  have  grown  very  rapidly 
during  the  last  (ew  years.  In  respect  of  imports  Bilaspur 
lias  nearly  half  of  the  District  trade,  its  imports  having 
been  236,000  maunds  out  of  the  District  total  of  585,000 
in  1906.  Next  to  Bilaspur  came  Pendra  with  111,000 
maunds,  Kota  with  67,000,  Champa  with  67,000  and  Akaltara 
wiih  48,000.  The  Su'-guja  and  Rewah  States  obtained  their 
imports  by  road  from  Pendra  station,  and  apparently  goods 
from  Kota  must  now  be  distributed  over  part  of  the  Mungeli 
tahsil. 

135.  The    export    trade    is    principally    conducted    by 

Marwari     Banias    and     Muhammadan 

Classes     engaged     in        /-•    .    i  •  /-^  r- 

trade.  Culchis.       One  or  two  Luropean  com- 

panies are  engaged  in  the  trade  in 
timber,  lac  and  myrobalams,  while  Muhammadans  deal  in 
these  articles  as  well  as  in  hides.  Bohras  import  stationery 
and  glassware.  The  Bohras  come  from  Sfirat  and 
Ahmcdabad  and  their  headquarters  in  the  Central  Provinces 
is  at  Burhanpur.  They  settle  down  in  the  places  where  they 
trade,  but  the  Cutchis  stay  only  for  eight  months  and  return 
to  Cutch  during  the  rains.  Tliey  are  made  up  into  small 
companies  with  shops  in  different  parts  of  the  District  and  in 
Bombay,  and  even  their  personal  servants  have  small  shares 

AA 


178  nil.ASrilR.       LOANS,    PRICF-S,    WAGES,    ETC. 

in    their    undertakings.       Every    year    at    the    Divvali    their 
accounts  are  settled  up,  and  their  profits  divided. 

COMMUNICATIONS. 

136.  The  ma'lnlineof  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  passes 
through    the    centre    of   the    District, 
diways.  Entering  the    Bilaspur  tahsil  from  the 

south  close  to  Nipania  station  it  follows  a  northerly  direction 
to  Bilaspur  town    where  it  takes  a  turn  to  the  nx>rth-east  and 
crosses  the    Bilaspur    and  Janjgir    tahsils    and    the    Champa 
zamindari.     The   length  of    the  line  within  the  District  is  65 
miles  and  it  has  seven  stations.     It  was  completed  to  Raigarh 
in  1S90.    From  Bilaspur  a  branch  line  on  the  broad  gauge  runs 
north  to  Katnl    junction  on  the  East  Indian  Railway,  having 
been  opened  in  1891.     Its    length  within    the  District    is  74 
miles  and  it  has  six  stations.     The  scenery  as  it  ascends  the 
passes   on  to  the  Pendra  plateau  is  very  picturesque.    Sanc- 
tion has  been  given  for  the  survey  of  the  line  on  the  narrow 
gauge  from  Neinpur  junction  on  the  Sitpura  extension  of  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  through  Mungeli  to  Bilaspur.     The 
length  of  the  line  will  be  170  miles  and  it  will  give  a  shorter 
and  more  direct  communication   between  the  Satpura  plateau 
and  Calcutta,  and  open  up  the  rich  Banjar  valley  of  Mandla. 
The  earthwork    for    part  of  the  line  between    Bilaspur   and 
Mungeli  was  laid  during  the  famine  of  1900. 

137.  The  old  trunk  routes  have  now  been  superseded  by 
the  railway  and  some  of  them   are  little 

.  rhc  old  trade  routes. 

more  than  grass-grown  tracks.  But 
they  are  marked  by  some  of  the  finest  avenues  of  trees  to  be 
found  in  the  Province.  At  the  settlement  of  1868  traffic 
followed  five  pri||cipal/outes,of  which  three  were  rugged  and 
inaccessible,  quite  unfit  for  wheeled  carriage  and  only  admit- 
ting of  export  or  import  by  means  of  pack-bullocks  during  six 
months  of  the  year.  Of  these  two  were  northern  routes,  one 
leading  from  the  Chliattlsgarh  plain  througli  Kenda,  Pendra 
and  Sohagpur  to  Rewah,  and  the  other  through  Lapha,  Chhuri, 


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COMMUNICATIONS.  1/9 

Uprora  and  Surguja  to  Mirzapur.  Both  these  routes  were, 
through  a  great  portion  of  their  length,  simply  tracks  across 
the  hills  and  through  the  jungles^  along  which  few  traders  or 
travellers  ventured  alone.  The  place  of  the  former  has  now 
been  taken  by  the  Katni-Bilaspur  Railway.  The  first  part  of  • 
the  Mirzapur  road  is  the  stretch  between  Bilaspur  and  Ratan- 
pur,  now  maintained  as  a  gravelled  road,  which  it  is  in  contem- 
plation to  metal.  The  road  runs  along  the  bank  of  the  Arpa 
river  and  is  famous  for  its  scenery  and  avenues.  Beyond 
Ratanpurthe  road  is  only  a  village  track,  but  it  is  intended  to 
gravel  the  34  miles  from  Ratanpur  to  Chhuri.  Rataripur  was 
formerly  an  emporium  for  the  forest  produce  of  the  north  of 
the  District,  but  this  is  now  taken  to  Ghutku  station.  The 
third  of  the  old  tracks  was  that  from  Bilaspur  to  Mandla 
through  Mungeli,  Setganga,  Kawardhaand  Borla.  A  gravel- 
led road  has  now  been  made  for  the  40  miles  from  Bilaspur 
to  Setganga  and  this  is  gradually  being  given  a  metal  cover- 
ing. The  road  crosses  numerous  streams  as  the  Ghonga, 
Nerbudda,  Maniari  and  Agar,  all  of  which  are  unbridged  and 
cause  considerable  dif^culty  to  carts  in  the  rains.  Double 
ferry-boats  have  now  been  provided,  which  will  carry  carts 
and  horses  across  in  the  heaviest  floods.  A  village  track 
runs  for  the  fourteen  miles  from  Setganga  to  the  Kawardha 
border  and  is  littJe  used  except  for  droves  of  cattle  coming 
from  Saugor  and  Damoh.  The  other  two  main  routes  were 
those  leading  to  Sambalpur  and  Raipur,  The  Sambalpur 
road  is  little  used,  traffic  being  taken  by  feeder-roads  Xo  Akal- 
tara  and  Champa  stations.  The  southern  road  to  Raipur 
through  Nandghat  has  been  superseded  by  the  railway  which 
runs  parallel  to  and  only  a  few  miles  from  it.  The  road  is 
gravelled  and  has  a  length  of  20^  miles  in  the  District. 

138.  The  most  important  traffic  routes  at  present  are  the 

^     ,    „    .  ,  rail\vay  feeders  from  Champa  to  Bam- 

Roads.  Railway  feeders. 

nldih  and  Bhatgaon,  Champa  to  Korba, 
Akaltara  to  Pamgarh,  Akaltara  to  Baloda  and  Bhalapara  to 
Mungeli.     The   Champa-Bhatgaon  road    is  metalled    for  the 


|80  BILASPUR.       LOANS,    PRICES,    WAGES,    ETC 

fust  five  miles  and  gravelled  for  the  remaining  eighteen.  The 
important  market  village  of  Bamnidih  is  situated  at  a  distance 
of  twelve  miles  from  Champa.  Much  grain  from  the  Phuljhar 
zaniindari  and  the  janjgir  tahsil  is  brought  to  Champa  station 
along  this  road  for  export.  The  road  from  Champa  to  Korba, 
a  distance  of  2^  miles,  is  now  under  construction.  It  carries 
a  considerable  quantity  of  forest  produce.  From  Akaltara 
station  a  road  goes  for  ten  miles  to  Pamgarh  where  it  joins  the 
old  Sambalpur  road  between  Bilaspur  and  Seorlnarayan. 
From  Bilaspur  to  Pamgarh  on  the  Sambalpur  road  is  a  dis- 
tance of' 23^  miles,  of  whicii  the  first  eleven  miles  to  Masturi 
are  maintained  as  a  gravelled  road.  This  is  the  old  Sambal- 
pur road  and  is  provided  with  a  very  fine  avenue.  A  new 
road  is  to  be  constructed  to  give  a  direct  connection  between 
Seorinarayan  and  Janjgir.  The  principal  outlet  for  the 
Chhuri,  Lapha  and  Kenda  zamlndaris  is  tjie  Chiiuri-Baloda- 
Akaltara  road.  For  the  nine  miles  from  Akaltara  to  Baloda  it 
is  gravelled,  but  beyond  that  is  only  a  village  track.  The  prin- 
cipal trade  route  in  the  Mungeli  tahsil  is  the  Mungeli-Nand- 
ghat-Bhatapara  road,  crossing  the  Seonath  at  Nandghat, 
which  runs  for  nine  miles  in  the  District.  It  is  to  be  metalled 
throughout  as  it  carries  much  traffic,  grain  from  the  Mungeli 
tahsil  being  taken  to  Bhatapara  instead  of  to  Bilaspur,  as  it 
is  more  easily  disposed  of  at  the  former  place.  From  Set- 
ganga  beyond  Mungeli  a  gravelled  road  goes  to  Pandaria,  the 
headquarters  of  the  large  Pandaria  zamlndari.  And  from 
Pandaria  two  roads  have  been  constructed  by  the  Chhattlsgarh 
Slates  Roads  Division,  one  going  south  to  Dongargarh  sta- 
tion in  Khairagarh  State,  and  the  other  east  for  41  miles 
through  Lormi  to  Kota  station  on  the  Bilaspur-Katnl  line. 
It  is  proposed  to  make  a  new  road  from  Lormi  to  Mungeli  a 
di>iance  of  19  miles,  to  facilitate  the  conveyance  of  produce 
lo  Mungeli  from  the  Lormi  forests.  In  Pendra  zauiindari  a 
road  leads  from  Gaurela  station  to  Pendra  for  4I  miles  and 
another  for  14  miles  to  Amarkantak.  Some  grain  is 
brought   to    the  railway  from  Mandla  along    this  road.     A 


COMMUNICATIONS.  lol 

surface  road  has  also  been  constructed  from  Pendra  to  Jatanga 
on  the  borders  of  the  Matin  and  Lapha  zaralndaris,  and  another 
northward  to  Parasi  through  Bargaon.  The  Jatanga  road  is 
used  for  the  limber  traffic  from  Matin  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  lac  is  brought  on  bullocks  from  Rewah  State  along 
the  Parasi  road.  Pendra  station  also  acts  as  a  distributing 
centre  for  the  imports  of  Surguja  and  Kewah  States.  In  Chan- 
darpur  zamindari  a  gravelled  road  leads  from  Khursia  station 
in  Raigarh  State  to  Dabhra  for  lO^  miles  and  is  continued  as 
a  surface  road  to  Chandarpur  for  13  miles.  A  feeder  from 
Loharsi  to  Nipania  station  in  Raipur  District  is  partly 
constructed. 

139.  The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  in  the  District  is 
only  26  miles    and    of  unmetalled,  288 

Statistics  of  roads  and      j^^jj^g^    'pj^g  metalled  roads  consist  only 

carts.  ■' 

of  short  lengths  on  the  Bilaspur-Mun- 

geli  and  other  roads  and  of  a  few  railway  feeders.  The  Public 
Works  Department  are  in  charge  of  219  miles  of  road  and 
the  District  Council  of  the  remainder.  The  maintenance  of 
the  Public  Works  Department  roads  co&ts  Rs  33,000  and  of 
those  under  the  District  Council  about  Rs.  3000.  The  Coun- 
cil also  execute  trifling  repairs  to  841  miles  of  village  tracks. 
The  northern  zamlndaris  are  still  badl}^  provided  with  roads 
passable  for  carts  and,  with  the  exception  of  timber,  produce 
is  often  transported  by  pack-bullocks.  The  ordinary  country 
cart  is  known  as  band'i.  Tiie  wheels  are  usually  made  of 
babul  {Acacia  arabicd),  and  the  body  of  sal  wood  {SJiorea 
robusta).  A  cart  costs  about  thirty  rupees  and  carries  a  load  of 
six  bags  of  2\  maunds  each  or  fifteen  maunds.  Bullocks  are 
used  for  pack-carriage  in  the  northern  zamlndaris  and  salt  and 
tobacco  are  sometimes  brought  on  bullocks  by  Banjaras  from 
Ganjam.     In  1907  the  District  had  36,000  carts. 


Area  and  situation. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
FORESTS  Ai\D  MINERALS. 

FORESTS. 

140.  The  Government  reserved  forests  of  the  District 
under  tlie  management  of  the  Forest 
Department   comprise    an    area  of  545 

square  miles  or  7  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  District. 
Besides  this  the  Sonakhan  range  with  an  area  of  120  square 
miles,  which  was  transferred  to  the  Raipur  District  on 
1st  January  1906  on  the  redistribution  of  the  Chhattlsgarh 
Districts,  is  still  included  in  the  Bilaspur  Forest  Division. 

141.  The  reserved  forests  of  the  Division  are  comprised 
in  the  following  four  forest  ranges: — 


Forest  ranges. 


(1)  The  East  Lor  mi  lange   ... 

(2)  The  West  Lormi  range  ... 
(3j  The  Kuajathi  Pantora  range 
(4)  The  Sonakhan  range 


Area  in 
square  miles. 

247 
199 

99 
120 

665 


Total  area 

Three  of  these,  the  East  and  the  "West  Lormi  ranges 
lying  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  District  and  the 
Sonakhan  range  lying  south  of  the  river  Mahanadi,  are  large 
compact  areas.  The  remainder  of  the  Government  forest  lies 
scattered  in  small  patches  towards  the  centre  and  the  east  of 
the  District.  The  forests  in  the  north-west  and  south  are 
more  or  less  hilly  with  intervening  plateaux  while  those  of  the 
centre  and  the  east  grow  on  plains  save  one  large  patch  known 
as  the  Bitkuli  reserve  in  the  Pantora  range  covering  an  area 
of  24  square  miles  which  is  abruptly  hilly  again.  Classified 
from  this  point  of  view  and  also  from  that  of  variations  in  the 


FORESTS. 


183 


rainfall  and  soils,  three  distinct  types  of  deciduous  growth  are 
noticed  : — 

142.  {a)  The  forests  of  the  plains,  where  generally  the 

soil   is  heavy  and  rainfall   is    compara- 
Chaiacier, constitution      tivgly  less,  are  characterised  generally 

and      composition         01  -^ 

the    ciop    with  respect      by    rank    gi'owlh     of    grass,    stunted, 

to    soils,  elevation    and  .     . 

rainfall.  deformed  and  diseased  trees  consisting 

principally  of  fuel  species,  inferior  tim- 
ber trees  such  as  can  only  be  used  for  agricultural  purposes 
also  sometimes  being  intermixed.  These  forests  generally 
deteriorate  into  scrub. 

(6)  The  forests  of  the  valleys  and  plateaux  and  on  very 
gentle  slopes  of  the  hills  with  cool  northerly  aspects  consist 
of  valuable  timber  trees,  such  as  sal,  blja^  sdj\  etc.,  and  bam- 
boos either  mixed  or  pure,  which  attain  a  good  size.  Here 
the  forests  get  a  good  rainfall,  the  water  level  is  not  very 
deep,  and  the  soil  also  is  light.  The  porous  nature  of  the 
soil  derived  principally  from  the  disintegration  of  sandstone 
affords  facilities  for  the  strong  development  of  the  root 
systems  of  plants.  Reproduction  is  good  and  the  perma- 
nency of  the  forests  is  assured. 

(c)  The  forests  on  bad  hill  slopes  and  in  the  valleys 
with  a  warmer  southerly  aspect  are  principally  characterised 
by  an  inferior  growth  of  bamboos,  the  rugged  tops  of  hills 
sometimes  only  growing  the  hill  grasses. 

143.  Among  the  major  pi-oduce  the  following  timber  and 

tuel  species  require  mention: — Sal  or 

Forest     produce     and 

their  local  economical  sarai  (Shorea  tobusta),  teak  or  sdgon 
(Tectona  grandis),  and  Inja  or  bJja 
sal  (Pterocarpus  niarsupiiun)^  though  the  last  two  valuable 
timbers  are  not  available  in  large  quantities. 

Siris  ( Dalbcrgia  latijolia)  is  an  ornamental  dark  wood 
occasionally  found. 

Sdj  (Ten/ii?ialia  totnoitosa)  is  not  very  popular  although 
it  yields  good  straight  poles  for  roofing.  Karrd  (Lcbidicro- 
pns  orbicularis)  when  growing  straight  will  yield  poles  much 


184  nil. A. SPUR.       FORESTS    AND    MINERALS. 

valued  locally  as  it  can  resist  insect  attacks.  Dhaura  (Ano- 
geissus  latijolia)  makes  strong  cart  axles,  tendi'i  (Diospyros 
tomentosa)  and  tinsa  (^Oligemia  d(xlbcrgioides)  make  the  best 
cart  siiafts  wliilc  scnha  { Lagcrstnvmia parviflora)  is  the  most 
useful  of  all  woods  to  the  agriculturist.  Nearly  all  trees  in 
tljc  foi-ests  yield  good  fuel  except  galgal  {Cochlospermuni 
Gossypinin),  salai  {BosiocUia  serrata),  scmar  {Bovdmx  niala- 
Imric/im  ,  gimjd  [Odina  Wodicr)  and  other  soft  wooded 
species.  Salai,  gii^iji^  'ind  especially  scniar  are  in  demand 
for  match  wood  at  the  match  factory. 

144    Of  the  bamboos,  grasses  and  otfier  minor  produce, 
the    following    may    be     noted:— The 

MiiiO!-  produce. 

chief  bamboo  is  the  Dcndrocalavius 
strictus.  The  cJnr  and  biraiii  grasses  make  good  brooms. 
The  bagai  grass  {hcJuvumui  aiigiistifoliuui)  is  twisted 
into  thin  cordage  used  locally  for  weaving  chdrpais  or 
cots.  Sukld  grass  yields  the  best  thatching  grass  and 
mucJieli  (Iscilenia  Wightn)  is  the  fodder  grass.  Honey, 
wax,  myrobalams,  cJiironjX  catechu  or  katthd,  gums,  hides, 
and  horns,  lac,  tik/ucr,  etc.,  are  other  minor  products.  The 
principal  minor  produce  of  the  District  which  has  become 
prominent  during  the  last  few  years  is  lac.  In  1904-05 
the  revenue  from  lac  and  other  minor  produce  amounted 
to  Rs.  3958,  while  during  the  year  ending  with  31st  March 
1908  it  was  Rs.  7522. 

MnsU  kdnda,  white  inusU  {Chlorophytnni  breviscapiiin) 
and  black  innsU.  {Cnrculigo  orchwides)  found  in  the  Lormi 
forests  is  a  useful  article  much  prized  for  its  medicinal  pro- 
perties. It  is  valued  as  a  tonic  and  has  great  sustaining 
properties  being  used  in  cases  cf  debility,  etc. 

145.  Up  till  tlie  year  [888  the  Government  forests  were 
p,,, ,    ,  „        ,  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Deputy 

rast  and  present    sys-  "      ■' 

tern   of  forest   manage-      Commissioner    of  the  District.       They 

ment.  ^ 

were   then   made   over   to    the    Forest 

Department.  Up  to  1893-94  they  were  open  to  the  extrac- 
tion of  timber  of   the   inferior  species,    bamboos,    fuel,   both 


FORESTS.  185 

green  and  dry,  grass,  and  all  other  minor  products,  on 
licenses,  no  restriction  as  to  the  locality  from  which  the 
material  was  to  be  obtained  being  imposed-  In  the  year 
1893-94  another  system  was  introduced  by  which  the  felling 
of  all  green  wood  was  prohibited  except  from  coupes  espe- 
cially marked  off  for  this  purpose,  but  dry  timber,  dead  and 
dry  fuel,  grass,  and  bamboos  could  be  removed  as  heretofore 
from  any  part  of  the  forests,  provided  a  license  was  first 
purchased  at  a  revenue  post  for  the  quantity  of  material 
required.  This  system  is  still  in  vogue.  Working-plans 
for  the  East  and  West  Lormi  ranges  as  well  as  for  the 
Chitta  Pandaria  reserve  in  Pantora  range  have  been  in  force 
since  the  year  1895.  These  plans  however  only  provide 
for  the  immediate  exploitation  of  a  small  fraction  of  the 
forests  of  the  Division  and  a  complete  working-plan  for  all 
the  fon^sts  of  the  Division  is  now  being  prepared.  In  1907-08 
the  forest  staff  consisted  of  a  Divisional  Forest  Officer, 
three  Rangers,  one  Deputy  Ranger,  nine  foresters,  35  per- 
manent and  28  temporary  forest  guards. 

146.  Grazing   is   at   present  allowed    to   all  cattle    for 
which   licenses  are   taken  out>     These 

Grazing. 

licenses  are  only  available  for  the 
forests  declared  open  for  grazing,  a  very  small  percentage  of 
the  total  area  of  the  forests  being  always  closed  to  grazing 
in  the  interests  of  working  and  to  supply  standing  grass  for 
thatching  purposes.  There  are  two  classes  of  cattle  which 
find  pasture  in  Government  forests  besides  the  cattle  of 
forest  villagers  :  — 

(i)  Cattle  which  live  on  the  outskirts  of  the  forests  and 
graze  only  during  the  day  in  the  jungle  and  are  driven  home 
in  the  evening,  and  (2)  cattle  belonging  to  owners  living  at 
long  distances  which  remain  in  the  jungle  almost  all  the 
year  round.  The  latter  classes  of  cattle  live  and  breed  in 
the  jungle,  the  owners  receiving  a  fixed  quantity  of  ^//?  per 
head  from  the  graziers,  as  well  as  all  the  male  offspring. 
Cattle  camps  or  daihdns  as  they  are  called  have  beSn  located 

BB 


1 86 


DII.ASPUR.       FORESTS    AND    MINERALS. 


Fire-protection. 


in  the  Lormi  and  Sonakhan  ranges  for  several  generations 
past.  Tlie  number  of  both  classes  of  cattle  is  steadily 
increasing.  The  number  of  animals  entering  the  forest  in 
Die  year  1907-08  was  43,679.  In  this  District  no  fodder 
grass  is  cut  and  converted  into  hay  for  use  in  the  hot  weather 
or  to  supplement  the  supply  of  rice-straw. 

147.  Fire-protection  is  afforded  to  all  the  more  important 
forests  of  the  Division,  the  intensity 
and  cost  of  the  protection  varying  with 

the  value  and  importance  of  the  forest.  In  the  year  1898-99 
an  area  of  170,933  acres  was  protected  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  2527  ; 
this  has  increased  to  an  area  of  267,961  acres  protected  at  a 
cost  of  Rs.  4344  at  the  present  time. 

148.  The    annual    revenue    from   different    sources    for 

the    two    quinquennial    periods     from 
^^Receipts   and  Expen-       13^3.^^  [q    1902-O3  and    from   19O3-O4 

to  1907-08  is  given  below  : — 


Year. 

Timber. 

Fuel. 

Grass 

and 

grazing. 

„             Minor 
Bam-      r 
.               forest 
boos.          J 

produce. 

Miscel- 
laneous. 

Total. 

1898-99  to  1902- 
03. 

1903-04  to  1Q07- 

08. 

Average  per  an- 
num. 

Rs. 

2137 

4834 

3485 

Rs. 

898 

1346 

1123 

Rs. 
363' 

4857 

4244 

Rs. 

54T2 

9251 
7331 

Rs 

394 « 

5399 
4670 

Rs. 

'237 

2696 
1967 

Rs. 

17,256 

28.383 
22,819 

The  Department  is  making  rapid  progress  in  the  receipts, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  expenditure  has  also  increased. 
The  following  statement  gives  the  revenue  and  expenditure 
for  the  sahie  period  : — 


FORESTS. 


187 


Year. 

Revenue. 

Expendi- 
ture. 

Deficit. 

1898-99  to  1902-03           •    ... 
1903-04  to  1907-08 
Average  per  annum 

Rs. 

17,256 
2^,383 
22,819 

Rs. 

26,369 
36,564 
3 '.466 

Rs. 

-9'i3 
-8118 

-8647 

The  Division  has  been  wofked  during  the  last  ten  years 
at  an  average  loss  of  Rs.  8647  per  annum.  This  is  due  to 
the  opening  up  of  the  forest  by  the  construction  of  roads, 
buildings,  tanks  and  wells,  etc.  In  another  few  years  the 
programme  for  the  works  contemplated  will  be  complete  and 
the  expenditure  brought  down.  It  is  then  expected  that  the 
revenue  will  increase  and  permanently  add  to  the  income  of 
the  Department.  The  produce  is  nearly  all  sold  for  local 
consumption. 

149.  Besides  the    Government  forests  the    District  con- 

tains    2653    square    miles    of    private 

Private   forests.  Area       fo^.^^t         ^f     ^^hich     756     SqUarC      milcS 
and  situation.  '  1  j  i 

belong  to  malguzars  and  1897  square 
miles  to  zamlndars.  With  rare  exceptions  (Ratanpur  and 
Lormi)  all  the  malguzari  forests  of  the  District  are  little 
better  than  scrub.  At  the  last  settlement  (1889)  the  malgu- 
zari income  from  jungles  was  estimated  at  Rs.  2  5,549-  The 
jungles  are  all  included  in  village  boundaries  and  tenants 
of  the  village  have  rights  of  nistar.  There  is  very  little  sale 
of  timber  to  outside  villages.  The  Lormi  tahutdars  get  a 
good  income  from  lac,  Lormi  lac  being  celebrated.  The 
zamlndari  forests  are  very  extensive.  Pandaria  lies  to  the 
west,  Kenda,  Lapha,  Matin  and  Pendra  to  the  north 
Uprora,  Chhuri,  Champa  and  Korba  to  the  east  and  north- 
east.    Kanteli  has  no  forest. 

150.  The  character  of  the  forests  and  the  nature    of  the 

country  are  much  the  same  as  in  Gov- 

Character    of  the  for- 
ests  and  nature  of  the      ernment  foresfs.     Many  of  the  forests 

^°""'*'  are  secluded   and   hilly.     The    vegeta- 

tion, once  probably  very  rich,  has  now  been  carelessly  hacked 


1 88  Uri.ASPUR.       FORESTS    AND    MINERALS. 

out;  sylvicultural  principles  have  been  absolutely  disregarded 
ancl  in  nearly  every  case   the    forests    have  been   over-cut, 
neglected,    over-grazed,    maltreated    and    are  generally  in  a 
ruined  state.     Apparently   the  only  object  in  their  treatment 
has  been  to  make  revenue  out  of  them  and  to  get  as  much 
produce  as  possible  with  the  least  trouble  and  expense.     On 
llie  advent   of   the  railways  zamlndiirs  gave  contracts  some- 
limes    at    ridiculously    low    rates.      Some    fine   timber    still 
remains  in  the  more  inaccessible   parts,  but    the  process   of 
destruction   is    still   going    on  in  places,    though   zamlndars 
have  perhaps   now  become  more  alive  to  their  own  interests. 
The   zamindar  of  Lapha  is  an  honourable  exception  and  has 
carefully  preserved  his  forests  from   over-cutting.     As  com- 
pared with    Government   rates,    the   forest   produce  of   the 
zamlndclris  is  sold  much  cheaper.     Purchasers  are  allowed  to 
cut  and  extract  produce  without   the   restriction  and    rules 
imposed  in  Government  forests.     They  are  therefore  largely 
attracted  from  the  open  country  and   the  limit  is  only  set 
when  distance  more  than  counterbalances  the  lowness  of  the 
rates.     There  has  been  in  the  past  decade  a  large  export  of 
sleepers  from  Akaltara  and   Champa  railway  stations   (the 
produce  of   Chhuri  and    Korba   zamindari  jungles)    and  of 
sleepers   and  poles   from    Belgabna,  Khongsara,  Khodri  and 
Pendra  railway  stations  ithe  produce  of  Kenda,  Pendra  and 
Matin  zamindari  jungles).     Export    though  much  reduced  is 
still  going  on.     The  forests  of  Pendra,    Matin,  and   Uprora 
have  always  been  resorted  to  by  graziers  with  cattle  from 
the  north.     In  Matin  many  such  north  country  graziers  have 
permanently  settled  down   and   opened  up  villages.     At  the 
last  settlement  (18S9)  the  zamindari  income  from  forests  was 
estimated  at   Rs.   39,534  excluding  the  area  handed  over  to 
the  Raipur  District.      Now  it  is  estimated  at  Rs.  74,829. 

151.  Fees  for  grazing  and  produce  are  levied  by  license 

from  outsiders  by  all  zamlndars.     From 
Piiv.-»te      lights       in  -j       ..   .  .  .  .  j        ..• 

zamindari  f 01  ests.  resident  tenants,  non-tenants  and  arti- 

zans  commutation  fees  at  various  rates 


FORESTS.  1 89 

are  usually  levied  for  grazing,  timber  for  household  use,  wood 
used  in  trades  (such  as  iron  smelters),  and  occasionally 
minor  produce.  Lac  is  always  given  on  lease  and  sometimes 
mahua  and  other  minor  produce. 

At  the  first  regular  settlement  in  1869  it  was  the  orig- 
inal intention  of  the  Government  to  treat  zamindari  forests 
exactly  like  malguzari  forests  ;  to  allot  a  sufficient  area  of 
forest  land  for  the  use  of  the  zamlndars ;  to  exclude  the 
remainder  from  their  estates  under  the  excess  waste  rules  ; 
and  to  constitute  it  the  property  of  Government.  These 
views  however  became  so  far  modified  that  the  intention  of 
forming  separate  State  reserves  from  zamindari  forests  was 
abandoned,  and  it  was  decided  that  the  whole  forest  was 
to  be  left  under  the  control  of  the  zamindars.  But  in  order 
to  assert  the  rights  of  the  Government  a  separate  forest 
takoli  (quit  revenue)  was  to  be  fixed,  and  a  re-assessment 
after  periods  of  three  to  five  years  was  to  be  imposed.  In 
practice,  however,  in  Bilaspur  as  elsewhere,  the  forest  takol'is 
though  separately  assessed  were  fixed  for  the  full  term  of 
settlement,  and  no  distinction  was  made  between  the  condition 
on  which  the  forests  were  held  and  those  applying  to  the  rest 
of  the  zamindari  area.  Hence  the  zamlndars  of  this  District 
are  now  considered  to  have  proprietary  rights  over  the  forests 
of  their  estates. 

152.   Subproprietors    hold    individual    villages    in    the 
zamlndaris,  and    it    has    long     been 

Subproprietors.  _  '^ 

decided  that  they  possess  the  same 
rights  over  the  whole  forest  area  included  within  the  boundary 
of  their  villages  as  the  zamlndar  possesses  over  the  rest  of 
his  estate.  There  are  no  other  private  rights  in  zamindari 
forests  except  the  somewhat  indefinite  right  of  cultivators 
to  certain  minor  products — grass,  leaves,  thorns,  etc. 

15^.  It    has  from  the  first   been  clearly  asserted  that 

zamlndars  are  liable  to  Government 
cfiTXi"o,eT,.'"'       restric.icis  in  regard  to  the  exploit,.- 

tion     of     their   forests.     The   earliest 


190  BILASPUR.       FORESTS   AND    MINERALS. 

rules  (issued  in  1867)  simply  declared  that  the  forests  of 
ea'ch  zamlndari  sliould  be  managed  under  the  rules  obtaining 
in  Government  unreserved  forests;  and  that  no  arrange- 
ment for  felling  trees  'over  a  term  of  more  than  one  year, 
or  for  the  sale  of  more  than  1000  trees  of  the  reserved  kinds, 
should  have  effect  without  the  Deputy  Commissioner's  sanc- 
tion. The  value  of  the  zamlndari  forests  even  at  this  early 
date  was  much  impaired.  They  were  specially  examined 
in  1862  by  Captain  Burton  and  Lieutenant  Forsyth,  on  the 
babis  of  whose  report  Sir   R.  Temple  wrote  :— '  The  whole 

*  territory  is  more  or  less  covered  with  a  vast  sal  forest  much 
'  of  which  however  has  been  injured  by  wasteful  clearings, 
'  and  much  of  it  is  naturally  of  a  stunted  character.  There 
'  are  however  many  fine  trees  remaining  in  Lapha.  In 
'  Korba  there  is  a  vast  sal  forest  300  square  miles  in  extent, 
'  one-fourth  of  which  may  be  considered  as  first  class  timber. 
'The  forest   has   been  much    injured  by  the  girdling  of  trees 

*  for  the  extraction  of  resin  darnmer.  There  is  also  a  fine 
'  sal  forest  in  Uprora  on  the  banks  of  the  Chornai  river,  but 

*  here  as  a  rule  the  largest  trees  are  in  the  most  inaccessible 
'places.'  The  rules  issued  in  1867  were  not  enforced  and 
the  destruction  of  valuable  forest  still  continued.  In  1883 
the  Chief  Commissioner  wrote  : — *  Instances  of  the  most 
'  lamentable  waste  have  occurred  in  the  Chhattlsgarh  zamln- 
'  daris,  but  as  the  railway  has  not  got  near  the  zamlndaris 
'  of  this  Division   the   outcry  has   in  fact  been   confined   to 

*  Btiandara   and     Balaghat.     But   unless   something  is   done 

*  now  the  effect  of  the  prolongation  of  the  railway  to  Cal- 
'  cutta   will  be   felt  in  all  forests  within  the  reach  of  railway 

*  contraf'tors    throughout    the    Chhattlsgarh    Division.     The 

*  zamlndars  are  the  wood  contractors'  natural  victims.'  In 
spite  of  this  note  of  warning  nothing  was  done  until  the 
settlement  of  1890.  Then  a  formal  attempt  was  made  to 
grapple  with  the  diflficult3^  The  forests  of  each  zamlndari 
(taken  to  consist  of  the  balance  of  area  after  the  exclusion  of 
villages  selected  for  survey)  were  constituted   innJiais  within 


MINERALS.  191 

the  meaning  of  article  46  of  the  Land-Revenue  Act, 
and  by  a  Gazette  Notification  of  the  same  year  rules  were 
imposed  for  their  control.  These  rules  have  continued  in 
force  up  to  the  present  time.  But  in  practice  they  have  never 
yet  been  enforced.  Timber  cutting,  dahia  cultivation,  and 
the  ringing  of  sal  trees  for  resin,  etc.,  are  still  regulated  solely 
by  the  extent  of  the  zamindars'  own  interest  in  the  conserva- 
tion of  their  forests,  with  the  result  that  after  1 5  years  of 
wholesale  destruction  by  the  contractors  whose  advent  had 
been  so  clearly  foreseen  the  forests  have  been  largely 
exhausted  of  all  their  most  valuable  timber. 

154.  The  roads  of  the    District  are    w'ell   supplied   with 

avenues,  the  best  being   found  on  the 
Roadside  arboriculture.  . 

Raipur-Bilaspur    road,     the    Bilaspur- 

Seorlnarayanroad,  the  Bilaspur-Mungeli-Setganga  road,  the 
Bilaspur-Ratanpur  road  and  the  Nandghat-Mungell  road. 
Originally  much  good  work  was  done  by  private  agency  and 
efforts  are  still  made  to  utilise  it  by  the  grant  of  sanads 
carrying  the  right  to  collect  the  produce  of  the  trees  so 
planted  and  to  remove  all  dead  wood.  Arboricultural  opera- 
tions are  carried  on  by  Government  through  the  medium 
of  the  Public  Works  Department  and  the  District  Council, 
and  regular  working-plans  are  in  force.  There  are  116 
miles  of  avenues  on  the  Public  Works  Department  roads  and 
13  miles  remain  to  be  planted.  On  38  miles  of  the  District 
Council  roads  avenues  have  been  established  and  29  miles 
remain  to  be  planted.  The  trees  principally  planted  in  the 
avenues  are  the  mango  [Mangifera  indicd),  7ilm  {Alelia 
indtcd),  pTpal  {Fiats  religiosa),jdnmn  ( Eugenia  Javiboland), 
babul  {Acacia  arabica)  and  tamarind  [Tainarindus  i?idica). 

MINERALS. 


155.  Bilaspur    District  has   been   but   very  imperfectly 
explored  for  minerals.     There  are    no 

Minerals. 

mines.    This  is  rather  surprising  as  rail- 
way communications  are  good.  Probably  when  the  Bilaspur- 


192  BII  ASn-R.       FORF.STS    AND    MINF.RALS. 

M  ungeli-Mandla  Railway  is  constructed  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  District  will  be  a  fruitful  field  for  explorers.  The 
District  is  perhaps  best  known  at  present  from  the  Korba 
coal-field.  On  three  occasions  portions  of  this  coal-field  in  the 
Korba  and  Chhuri  zaniindaris  have  been  prospected  by  Euro- 
pean firms  and  syndicates,  butoperations  have  been  abandoned. 
The  exact  result  of  prospecting  is  not  known.  A  coal 
outcrop  has  been  reported  in  the  far  north-eastern  boundary  of 
the  Uprora  zamindari,  and  there  has  been  recently  a  discovery 
in  the  Lapha  zamindari  of  coal  of  better  quality  than  hitherto 
found  in  the  Korba  field.  This  discovery  is  considerably 
further  west  of  the  Barakar  series  as  shown  in  the  Geological 
Survey  maps.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  all  the  hills  to  the  north 
of  the  District  and  in  Pandaria  zamindari.  It  is  worked  in 
native  fashion  in  most  of  tlie  northern  zamindaris.  Magnetite 
of  very  good  quality  has  been  found  in  large  quantities  on  the 
Kendaand  Lapha  borders.  Prospecting  licenses  for  manganese 
have  be^  applied  for.for  Lormi  and  two  or  three  other  villages, 
but  the  applications  were  not  proceeded  with  and  presumably 
nothing  was  found.  A  piece  of  very  good  manganese  was  seen 
by  Mr.  F.C.  Turner,  said  to  have  been  picked  up  north  of  Kedai 
in  the  Uprora  zamindari.  Manganese  of  fair  quality  in  small 
flat  boulders  has  been  found  at  Ratanpur  and  in  the  Pandaria 
zamindari.  So  far  nothing  of  importance  has  been  found  in 
reefs. 

There  are  traces  of  gold  in  quartz  of  the  metamorphic 
belt  running  from  Pandaria  to  Lormi.  It  is  washed  for  in 
the  Hasdo  and  Mahanadi  rivers  and  in  the  Jonk  river,  now 
in  Raipur  District.  Sonakhan,  a  private  revenue-free  estate 
now  in  the  Raipur  District,  contains  gold,  but  prospecting 
for  it  was  unsuccessful.  Mica  is  found  on  the  Komoghat 
leading  to  Pendra,  and  there  is  a  well  defined  reef  near  Bel- 
pat  in  the  Pendra  zamindari.  Traces  of  copper  have  been 
found  in  Ratanpur  and  Lormi.  Plumbago  has  been  found 
in  bluish  white  quartz  in  the  Khondra  forest  reserve.  Galena 
mixed  with  copper  pyrites  in   white   milky   quartz    has   been 


MINERALS.  193 

found  in  the  Pandarla  zamlndad.  Red  and  white  clays  are 
common,  the  white  more  common  than  the  red.  The  clay  is 
used  for  plastering  houses  and  is  called  chJmi  matti.  Build- 
ing stone  (sandstone)  is  found  chiefly  at  Bilaspur  and  Seorl- 
nara3'an.  The  Bilaspur  stone  is  not  good.  A  fair  stone 
not  widely  known  is  found  at  Kusmunda  in  the  Champa 
zamindari.  Many  of  the  railway  station  buildings  were 
made  of  this,  it  is  said.  Inferior  slates  are  found  at  Seorl- 
narayan.  They  are  used  in  the  local  schools.  Limestone 
is  common  all  over  the  level  portion  of  tlie  District.  Some 
concessions  have  been  applied  for  at  different  times. 


cc 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FAMINE. 

156.  No  regular  reports   of  famine  exist  prior  to  j868- 
69,  but  from  oral  enquiries  made  in  1 867 

Early  famines.  ...  ,     ^    .         o    o         r    -i  c 

It  IS  known  that  in  io2d  a  failure  oi 
both  the  autumn  and  spring  crops  occurred.  The  price  of 
wheat  and  gram  rose  to  i  2  seers  per  rupee,  against  a  normal 
rate  at  that  period  of  anything  between  120  and  400  seers. 
Such  a  difference  in  prices  must  necessarily  have  produced 
severe  distress.  In  1833-34  owing  to  the  distress  in  the 
north  of  the  Province,  grain  was  exported  from  Chhattlsgarh 
by  Government  agency,  and  in  the  following  year  1834-35  the 
rice  crop  partially  failed  in  Chhattlsgarh  itself.  In  spite  of 
the  prohibition  of  export  prices  rose  to  24  seers  to  the 
rupee  or  more  and  thousands  of  people  are  reported  to  have 
perished. 

In  1845  the  rice  crop  failed  for  want  of  rain  and  prices 
rose  to  an  unprecedented  extent,  rice  being  sold  at  10  seers 
and  wheat  at  7  seers  to  the  rupee  and  acute  distress  ensued. 
In  1856  again  a  scarcity  was  caused  by  high  prices 
arising  from  the  export  of  grain  to  the  north  of  the 
Province. 

In  1868-69  the  rain  failed  in  August  and  only  a  few 
showers  were  received  at  the  end  of  September  and  nothing 
in  October.  Except  in  the  black-soil  tracts  of  Mungeli  where 
half  a  crop  was  obtained,  the  outturn  of  rice  was  only  nominal. 
On  the  good  black-soil  of  MungelT  the  spring  crops  were  fair, 
but  elsewhere  they  yielded  poorly,  only  slight  showers  being 
received  in  the  cold  weather.  Considerable  distress  ensued 
and  the  bulk  of  the  relief  was  afforded  by  village  proprietors 
who  undertook  the  construction  or  repair  of  tanks  in  97 
villages,  affording  employment  to  some  6000  persons.    Govern- 


FAMINE.  195 

ment  opened  three  or  four  road-works  on  which  3500  persons 

were  emplo^'ed,  but  the  total  expenditure  was  only  Rs,  1 8,000. 

Poor-houses   were  established  at  a  number  of  centres,  being 

supported    partly    by    private    subscriptions  and    partly  by  a 

Government  grant.      A   severe    epidemic    of   cholera    broke 

out  in  t!ie  hot  weather,  and  it  was  reported  that  618  deaths. 

had  been  caused  by  starvation.     The  census  statistics  of  this 

period  are  too  inaccurate  for  any  deductions  as  to  the  effect 

of   the    famine  on    the  population,   but  there    is    no    doubt 

that    'distress    was    severe,     and    in    these    modern    days 

measures  of  relief  would  have  been  on  an  altogether  different 

scale. 

157.  In    1877-78  the  monsoon  was  abundant,  but  long 

breaks    alternated    with    heavy  falls  of 
Other  bad  seasons. 

rain,  and  it  ceased  early  in  September. 
The  rice  crop  was  short  in  the  Mungell  tahsil,  and  the  spring 
crops  were  injured  b'y  rust  and  caterpillars  owing  to  cloudy 
and  rainy  weather  in  the  winter  months. 

In  1886-87  the  rainfall  was  short  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember and  the  rice  crop  was  destroyed  on  high-lying  fields 
and  over  a  great  deal  of  the  yellow  soil  or  inatdsi  area. 
Good  showers  were  received  at  the  end  of  October  and  in 
November,  and  the  spring  crops  on  black-soils  did  fairly 
well,  but  in  the  area  where  the  rice  had  failed  the  spring 
harvest  is  not  important.  Some  distress  ensued  but  was  met 
by  small  road-works  while  many  malguzars  undertook  the 
construction  or  repair  of  tanks  or  field  embankments.  In 
the  following  year,  1887-88,  another  long  break  in  September 
and  October  did  some  injury  to  the  rice  crop.  Again  in 
1888-89  the  monsoon  failed  at  the  beginning  of  September 
and  very  little  rain  was  received  during  most  of  that  month 
and  October.  In  most  of  the  high-lying  tracts  the  rice  quite 
withered  and  was  left  to  be  grazed  off  by  cattle.  The  spring 
crops  also  suffered  from  lack  of  rain  and  were  poor.  Work 
was  provided  by  the  construction  of  the  railway  from  Bilaspur 
to  Katnl  and  on  some  roads. 


190  UlLASl'UK.        lAMINK. 

158.  In    1894  heavy  and  prolonged  rain  during  the  last 

three    months   of   the   year   did    much 

Seasons  prior  to  1897.  ,,      ,  ,•  j 

injury   to    all  the  standing  crops    and 

damaged  the  rice  harvest  on  the  threshing-floors.  Wheat 
was  partly  and  linseed  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  rust,  the 
Mungeli  tahsil  suffering  most  in  this  year.  In  the  following 
year,  1895-96,  the  monsoon  failed  abruptly  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year,  and  with  the  exception  of  slight  showers  drought 
prevailed  for  tlie  remainder  of  the  year.  The  rice  harvest 
was  less  than  half  the  average,  and  less  than  50  per  cent,  of 
the  spring  crop  area  could  be  sown.  The  Bilaspur  District 
fared  worse  than  Raipur  owing  to  its  having  already  had  a 
bad  year  in  1S94-95  and  during  1896  severe  distress,  deep- 
ening into  famine,  prevailed  over  a  large  area.  Owing  to  the 
changes  of  Deputy  Commissioners  and  the  want  of  experience 
in  famine  work  of  the  officers  of  the  Commission  the  extent 
of  the  distress  was  unfortunately  not  fully  realised.  Some 
private  works  were  undertaken  by  village  proprietors  and 
on  Courts  of  Wards  estates,  but  much  larger  measures  were 
really  required.  The  average  price  of  rice  was  12^  seers 
as  against  i6|  seers  in  the  previous  year  and  the  death-rate 
rose  to  47  per  mille  from  26  in  1895. 

159.  Bilaspur  was  thus  in  ill  case  to   meet  the  even 

worse  season  which  was  now  in  store 

The  famine  of  1S97. 

for  it.  The  monsoon  of  1896  gave 
heavy  rain  up  till  the  end  of  August,  but  again  failed  abruptly 
in  the  beginning  of  September.  For  most  of  that  m.onth 
and  October  none  was  received.  The  cultivators  had  every- 
where cut  the  embankments  of  their  fields  to  prevent  the 
rice  from  being  swamped,  and  under  the  influences  of  the 
hot  sun  and  dry  west  winds  during  these  months  the  rice 
crop  rapidly  withered,  while  the  ground  became  too  dry  for 
the  spring  crop  to  be  sown.  The  outturn  of  rice  was  only 
30  per  cent,  of  an  average  harvest,  and  the  area  sown 
Vvith  cold-weather  crops  was  little  more  than  a  quarter  of 
that    ordinarily   placed    under    them.      This   was  the  more 


FAMINE.  197 

unfortunate  as  good  rain  was  received  in  November  and 
January,  and  the  small  acreage  sown  gave  an  excellent  outturn. 
Of  the  three  tahslls  Mungell  was  the  most  affected  and  Janjgir, 
or  as  it  was  then  called,  Seorlnarayan,  the  least.  Certain 
areas  in  the  north-west  and  south-west  were  as  severely 
distressed  as  any  part  of  the  District  owing  to  the  great 
natural  poverty  of  the  soil. 

Relief  works  under  the  Public  Works  Department  were 
opened  from  January  1897,  the  total  number  of  charges 
being  14.  New  roads  were  made  from  Kota  to  Lormi, 
Bhatapara  to  Nandghat  and  from  Bilaspur  station  and  Champa 
station  to  the  towns*  Several  other  roads  were  also 
improved.  The  numbers  on  works  reached  a  maximum  of 
44,000  in  August  1897.  A  number  of  tanks  were  also  made 
under  the  Civil  Department,  the  principal  ones  being  those 
at  Bhatapara  and  Dhuma,  while  at  Bilaspur  an  insanitary 
tank  was  filled  up.  A  large  number  of  tanks  were  also  con- 
structed or  repaired  by  means  of  famine  loans,  or  from  the 
private  resources  of  landowners,  and  it  was  estimated  that 
as  many  as  70,000  persons  were  employed  on  these  works 
in  May  1897.  About  two  lakhs  wei^e  advanced  in  Famine 
and  Land  Improvement  loans.  Special  relief  was  given  to 
weavers  in  many  villages,  advances  of  thread  being  made  to 
them  and  the  cloth  purchased  at  5  annas  per  seer  (2  lbs.). 
The  advances  were  given  through  zanilndars,  malguzars  and 
schoolmasters.  Poor-houses  were  opened  at  Bilaspur,  Mungeli, 
Pendra,  and  Pandaria,  being  at  first  supported  by  private 
subscriptions  and  afterwards  taken  over  by  Government. 
In  March  1897  the  system  of  granting  doles  to  incapable 
persons  at  their  homes,  known  '  as  village  relief,'  was  intro- 
duced and  this  afterwards  assumed  large  proportions, as  the 
condition  of  the  people  grew  worse.  In  September  1897 
a  total  of  90,000  persons  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  population 
were  being  supported  in  this  manner,  a  figure  which  at  that 
time  was  considered  enormous.  It  was  not  considered  safe 
to  entrust  the  mukaddams  or  headmen  of  villages  with   the 


iqS  bilaspur.     pamine. 

adminisliation  of  relief  and  it  was  distributed  through 
Revenue  Inspectors,  great  difficulty  being  experienced 
owing  to  tlieir  small  number  and  the  distances  which 
they  had  to  traverse.  Additional  appointments  were 
afterwards  made  to  relieve  the  burden.  Kitchens  for 
the  distribution  of  cooked  food  were  opened  in  the 
rains. 

1 60.  Relief  measures  of  all  kinds  lasted  from  January 

to  December  1S97,  the  highest  number 

Statistics  of  tlie  famine. 

of  persons  in  receipt  of  assistance 
being  149,000  or  13  per  cent,  of  the  population  in  September 
1897.  The  expenditure  on  relief  was'  Rs.  20  lakhs  and  in 
addition  to  this  Rs.  3  lakhs  or  half  the  land  revenue  of  the 
year  was  suspended,  more  than  a  lakh  was  given  out 
under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act  and  three  lakhs  distri- 
buted from  the  Indian  Charitable  Fund.  The  mortality  for 
the  year  1897  reached  the  terrible  figure  of  loi  per  mille  as 
against  47  in  1896.  The  death-rate  was  not  very  high  up 
to  April  1897,  ^ut  from  that  month  it  rose  rapidly  obtaining 
its  maximum  during  the  rains  ;  the  frames  of  the  people  had 
generally  become  enfeebled  from  the  want  of  sufficient  food, 
and  when  the  trying  period  of  the  year  came  on  they  suc- 
cumbed without  a  struggle  to  cholera,  dysentery  or  malaria. 
The  price  of  rice  was  between  9  and  10  seers  a  rupee 
between  September  1896  and  March  1897.  From  April  it  rose 
further  and  in  August  reached  the  highest  point  of  7|  seers 
to  the  rupee,  an  increase  of  167  per  cent,  over  the  normal 
price  of  18  seers. 

161.  The  following  3'ear  1897-98  gave  a  bumper  rice  crop 

and  a  good  average  harvest  of  other 
1  he  years  1 898  and  1899. 

•  grains.     And    this     was    followed    by 

another  good  rice  crop  in   1898-99  though  the  spring  crops 

were  injured  by  the  absence  of  winter  rain,  and  in  the  western 

part  of  the  Mungcli  tahsll  the    rice  crop  was  also  short.      In 

these  tracts  some  village  relief  was  given  in  the  hot  weather 

of  1899. 


FAMtNK.  199 

162.  The  monsoon  of  1899  broke    in  June  and   gave 

10^  inches   in  that  month  and  the  first 
The  famine  of  1900.  ,  .         ,  ,         1 

part  of  July,     After  this  a  long  break 
occurred,  and  though  one  or  two  good  storms  passed  over 
the  District  in  August,   the  monsoon  was  never  again  really 
established   and   died  away    altogether  early  in  September. 
The  rice  crop  was  also  attacked  by  grass-hoppers,  and  except 
in  fields  completely  protected  by  irrigation    was  totally   lost. 
Cotton  and  til  yielded  well  and  kodon  gave  half    a  crop,  but 
these  grains    with   the  exception  of  kodon  in   the   Mungell 
tahsll  are  of  little  importance   beside  rice.     No  rain  fell  from 
September  to  the  end  of  the  year  and  the  spring  crops  were 
also   very    poor.     A  severe  famine  thus   became    inevitable. 
The  late  Sir  D.  Ibbetson  was  then  head  of  the  Province,  and 
under  his  direction  preparations   for  relief  were   begun    in 
ample   time  and   extended  as  the  occasion  for  them  arose. 
Village  relief  was  given  out  in  September    1899  and  village 
works  were  started  in   all   parts  of  the   District  to   provide 
labour   pending  the  completion  of  the  Public  Works   organ- 
isation.      Nine    regular    work-camps    had    been    opened    by 
December.      The    rush    on    the    works    at    this    time   was 
overwhelming,    and  though    seven  new    charges    had     been 
added  by  the  end  of  January,  the  numbers  on  each  work  rose 
to    8000  or  10,000.     Free  admission   was  stopped  for  nearly 
two  months  and  applicants  for  work  were  referred    to   Civil 
officers,  while  tlie    Public  Works  Department  organised  new 
camps.     Finally  28  charges  were  opened  in  May  tgoo.     The 
earthwork  for  the    Bilaspur-Mungeli  feeder  line  was  carried 
out  and  ballast  was  broken  for  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway. 
The  Pandaria-Kota  road  was    completed  and  a  new  road  was 
made   from   Nipania  to  Loharsl.    Several   other  roads   were 
constructed    or  gravelled.     A  large   number  of  small  works 
were    carried    out    under    Civil    officers   consisting   almost 
entirely  in  the  construction  and  improvement  of  tanks  both 
for  drinking-water  and  for  irrigation.    The  number  of  persons 
employed  on  village  works  rose  at  one  time  to  87,000   and 


200  BILASPUR.       FAMFNE. 

altogether  66^  tanks  were  constructed  or  improved.  Grass- 
cutting  operations  were  undertaken  during  the  early  stages 
of  the  famine,  advances  were  made  to  the  pale/s  or  headmen, 
who  paid  for  the  grass  at  a  fixed  rate  which  was  first 
fixed  at  1 5  bundles  for  a  pice  and  afterwards  reduced  to 
ten.  The  cost  to  Government  was  about  Rs.  20,000,  and 
the  grass  was  given  out  for  making  huts  on  relief  works 
and  to  needy  cultivators  for  their  cattle.  The  fodder  famine 
which  had  been  anticipated  in  some  quarters  was  not 
however  experienced  and  very  little  of  the  grass  could  be 
sold.  Relief  was  given  to  weavers  in  Bilaspur,  Mungell, 
Champa,  Blja,  Tarenga,  Nargora,  Akaltara,  Pandaria  and 
Nawagarh.  Middlemen  were  usually  employed,  who  gave 
thread  to  distressed  weavers  selected  by  Relief  Officers 
and  bought  their  products  at  the  rate  of  4  annas  a  d/toti 
or  loin-cloth.  The  bulk  of  the  cloth  was  purchased  by 
the  Charitable  Committee,  the  largest  number  of  weavers 
employed  at  one  time  being  about  1600.  Kitchens  for  distribu- 
tion of  cooked  food  were  opened  at  an  early  stage  of  the  famine 
and  their  number  was  gradually  increased  until  in  the  rains 
this  became  the  principal  form  of  relief  :  in  August  1900  a 
total  of  719  kitchens  were  open  and  144,000  persons  were 
receiving  cooked  food.  The  kitchens  were  managed  by 
village  proprietors,  schoolmasters  or  police  officials  and  in 
a  few  cases  by  paid  clerks.  Many  proprietors  and  school- 
masters devoted  great  attention  to  the  work  and  tosk  pride 
in  the  efficient  management  of  their  kitchens.  Village  relief 
by  cash  doles  was  given  on  a  fairly  large  scale  at  the  beginning 
of  the  famine  when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  work  could  not  be 
provided  and  never  assumed  such  importance  again,  the  dis- 
tribution of  cooked  food  from  kitchens  being  substituted  for  it, 
163.  Relief  measures  lasted  from  September  1899  '<* 
,       ,     .  December    1900     and     the    maximum 

Statistics  of  the  famine. 

number  of  persons  assisted  was  28 1,000 
or  24  per  cent,  of  the  population  in  May  1900,  the  total 
expenditure  being    Rs.  48  lakhs.     Besides  this  nearly  three 


FAMINE.  201 

lakhs  were  distributed  from  the  Charitable  Fund  and  five 
lakhs  given  out  in  loans  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans 
Act.  Practically  the  whole  land-revenue  demand  was 
suspended.  The  missionaries  resident  in  the  District 
rendered  the  most  cordial  and  effective  co-operation  in  the 
work  of  relief. 

The  mortality  for  the  year  1900  was  43  per  mille,  a  rate 
far  from  excessive.  The  death-rate  rose  during  the  hot 
weather  on  account  of  cholera  and  fell  again  in  the  rains,  a 
sure  indication  that  there  was  no  substantial  deterioration  in 
the  physical  condition  of  the  people.  The  average  price  of  rice 
during  the  year  1900  was  11^  seers  or  about  a  seer  cheaper 
than  in  Raipur.  In  the  last  months  of  1899  it  was  as  high 
as  10  seers  but  was  brought  down  by  the  imports  of  Bengal 
rice.     The  price  of  wheat  was  also  10  seers. 

164.  After  the  famine  of  1900  the  District  had  a  good 
harvest  in    1901,  but  in  the    following 

Subsequent  seasons. 

year  1901-02  the  later  rainfall  was 
insufficient  and  the  cold  weather  nearly  rainless.  Both  the 
rice  sown  on  yellow  soils  and  the  spring  crops  were  some- 
what poor.  A  little  relief  was  given  ill  the  hot  weather  in  the 
Janjgir  tahsll.  In  the  following  year  1902-03  a  long  break 
in  the  monsoon  occurred  from  the  last  week  of  July  to  the  last 
week  of  August,  and  this  was  aggravated  by  the  early 
cessation  of  the  rains  in  September.  The  crop  gave  only 
half  an  average  outturn,  the  worst  tracts  being  to  the  south  of 
the  District.  Work  was  provided  on  some  irrigation  tanks 
by  grants  to  the  proprietors  and  about  a  quarter  of  the  land- 
revenue  was  suspended  and  village  relief  was  given  A  large 
number  of  labourers,  some  10,000  in  all,  went  to  Bengal  to 
work  on  the  extension  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  from 
Sini.  The  mortality  was  absolutely  normal  and  no  real 
distress  was  experienced. 

The  next  two  seasons  yielded  beautiful  harvests,  but 
in  1905-06  the  rainfall  was  again  precarious  and  short  and 
the  crops  were  poor.     Relief  given  was  by  way  of  opening 


202  rai.ASPlJR.       FAMINE. 

tank  and  road-works.  After  an  interval  of  a  year  another 
bad  season  followed  in  1907-08,  again  produced  by  the  com. 
bined  late  arrival  and  early  departure  of  the  monsoon.  'Ilie 
rice  crop  was  only  about  half  an  average,  but  no  serious 
distress  was  experienced.  Village  relief  was  organised, 
special  works  opened  and  loans  were  extensively  given. 
The  long  catalogue  of  poor  and  bad  harvests  recorded  in  this 
chapter  has  sufficiently  shown  the  instability  of  the  rainfall, 
especially  in  the  all-imporlant  late  period  of  September 
and  October,  and  tlie  necessity  of  supplementing  the  natural 
supply  with  artificial  storage  by  means  of  tank  irrrigation. 
This  policy  has  now  been  definitely  adopted  by  Government, 
though  progress  in  this  District  is  likely  to  be  slow  for  the 
next  20  years,  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  the  future  histoiy  of 
the  District  will  be  less  marked  by  years  of  scarcity  and 
famine. 

165.  Since  the  second  great  famine  in  the  year  1899-1900 
the  District  has  suffered  from  three  years 
fa.S,r"'  "'"''''''  ''^  of  distinct  scarcity  in  1902-03,  in  1905- 
06  and  1907-08,  but  the  scarcity  was 
less  widespread  and  little  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
meeting  it.  But  apart  from  that,  the  circumstances  of 
the  District  have  changed  as  they  have  in  many  other 
Districts  of  the  Province.  There  are  now  fewer  labourers, 
as  their  numbers  were  most  affected  by  the  mortality  and 
emigration  of  the  great  famines.  The  level  of  prices  is 
very  much  higher  and  there  is  no  panic-striking  rise  of 
prices  on  a  failure  of  harvests.  For  the  past  three  or 
four  years  prices  have  been  at  famine  level  ordinarily.  The 
highest  level  of  prices  reached  in  1897  (8  seers  to  the  rupee), 
and  that  for  a  short  time  only,  ruled  for  months  together 
in  1908  and  was  not  specially  significant.  People  have 
learned  to  keep  something  in  hand  and  temporary  emigration 
is  now  annual.  Labourers  and  small  tenants  (Chamars 
especially)  go  yearly  after  harvest  to  find  employment  and 
return    in  June  in  time  to    sow.     They    find  their  way  to 


FAMINE.  203 

Kharagpur  (for  the  coal  mines),  to  Calcutta  docks  and  even 
so  far  as  the  Hyderabad  coal  mines.  When  the  harvest  fails 
the  number  of  emigrants  increases  largely. 

In  the  first  Settlement  Report  it  was  remarked  that  the 
great  need  of  the  District  was  private  irrigation  works  and 
people  are  now  learning  that  it  is  necessary  to  make  better 
provision  against  the  fickleness  of  the  September  rainfall 
chiefly  by  constructing  large  embankments  to  irrigate  rice  and 
ensure  rabi  sowings.  Agriculturists,  able  to  construct  such 
works,  find  it  difficult  in  years  of  plenty  to  get  sufficient 
labourers,  and  take  advantage  of  a  year  of  scarcity  to  get 
such  works  done.  There  is  thus  a  very  much  larger  number 
of  labourers  provided  for  by  private  works. 

The  zamlndaris  usually  do  better  in  years  of  scarcity 
than  the  khdlsa  portion  of  the  District.  Much  of  the  area 
sown  is  sown  with  light  millets  which  ripen  early,  the  rice 
is  mostfy  of  the  light  varieties  and  moreover  sown  in  valleys 
which  are  irrigated  naturally.  The  jungles  produce  lac, 
harrd,  mahua,  resin  and  such  like  crops,  which  even  in 
ordinary  years  add  considerably  to  the  resources  of  the 
people,  and  the  price  of  such  products  in  recent  years 
has  risen  considerably.  But  lac  and  mahua  especially  are 
fickle  crops,  and  when  they  fail  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
crops,  the  administration  of  relief  in  the  zamlndaris  is  a 
more  difficult  problem  than  in  the  khdlsa.  There  is  not 
the  same  inclination  as  in  the  khdlsa  to  improve  their  pro- 
perty on  the  part  of  those  who  have  rights.  Moreover, 
most  of  the  villages  are  in  possession  of  lessees  who  have 
no  security  of  tenure.  Private  works  are  therefore  very 
scarce.  The  people  have  not  learnt  to  migrate,  as  those 
in  the  khdlsa  have,  and  will  not  go  far  to  any  work. 
Digging  and  stonebreaking  they  particularly  dislike  and 
rather  than  face  such  work,  even  though  it  is  available 
within  a  day's  walk,  they  will  remain  patently  at  home  to 
starve. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION. 


Early  revenue  history. 


i66.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  revenue  administration 
of  the  District  under  the  Haibayavansi 
rulers.  The  country  appears  to  have 
been  divided  into  taluks  held  by  relations  or  influential 
followers  of  the  Ratanpur  dynasty,  and  the  taluks  were  made 
up  of  a  number  of  villages  each  held  by  farmers  who  paid 
the  rents  collected  from  the  cultivators  to  the  talukdars,  who 
in  turn  remitted  a  percentage  of  their  collections  to  the  Raja 
at  Ratanpur.  A  revenue  paper  of  the  time  of  the  Raja 
Kalyan  Sahai  (1560  A.D.)  represents  the  revenue  collections 
of  the  Chhattlsgarh  kingdom  to  have  amounted  to  over 
seven  lakhs  of  rupees,  and  the  details  for  the  old  Bilaspur 
District  are  as  follows  : — 


Pargana. 

No.    of 
villages. 

Annual  revenue 
collections. 

Bilaspur 
Mungeli 
Seorinarayan... 

941 
482 
145 

Rs. 

1,19.532 
65,000 

33,300 

1568 

2,17,832 

In  1740  tne  Chhattlsgarh  country  was  conquered  by  the 
Marathas,  and  in  1758  the  administration  of  the  country  was 
personally  assumed  by  Bimbaji  Bhonsla,  the  younger  brother 
of  Raghuji  I,  Raja  of  Nagpur.  Though  nominally  subject  to 
the    Nagpur    dynasty    he   was    virtually    independent    and 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION,  20$ 

maintained  a  separate  court  and  army  at  Ratanpur.  He  died 
in  1788  and  was  nominally  succeeded  by  Yenkoji,  the  younger 
brother  of  Raghuji  II  of  Nagpur.  This  prince,  however, 
resided  at  Nagpur  and  never  regularly  entered  into  the 
government  of  the  country,  which  remained  in  the  hands  of 
Anandi  Bai,  widow  of  Bimbaji.  The  Subahs  or  Governors  of 
the  province  were  nominally  subordinates  of  Yenkoji,  but  in 
practice  they  took  all  their  orders  from  Anandi  Bai.  This 
state  of  affairs  continued  until  the  death  of  Anandi  Bai  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  after  which  event 
the  administration  of  the  country  was  entrusted  to  a  succes- 
sion of  Subahs  appointed  by  the  Nagpur  Government  but 
after  their  appointment  subjected  to  practically  no  control. 
Their  tenure  of  office  was  however  extremely  short,  and  their 
main  object  appears  to  have  been  to  enrich  themselves  as 
speedily  as  possible  before  they  were  superseded  by  some 
new  favourite  of  the  Nagpur  Raja.  The  Chhattisgarh 
country  under  their  methods  of  administration  was  described 
by  Colonel  Agnew,  who  became  Superintendent  of  Chhattis- 
garh in  18 1 8  when  the  administration  of  the  Nagpur 
kingdom  was  assumed  by  the  British  Government  during  the 
minority  of  Raghuji  II,  as  *  One  uniform  scene  of  plunder 
*  and  oppression  uninfluenced  by  any  consideration  but  that 
'  of  collecting  by  whatever  means  the  largest  amount  possible.' 
These  conditions  resulted  in  considerable  agricultural  deteri- 
oration. Villages  were  deserted  and  cultivation  decreased, 
with  the  result  that  during  the  ten  years  previous  to  1818  the 
revenue  collections  did  not  exceed  Rs.  3,60,000  as  compared 
with  Rs.  7,00,000  in  the  best  days  of  the  Haihayavansi 
Rajas. 

The  system  of  assessment  in  force  when  the  country 
was  taken  under  British  management  was  as  follows.  The 
province  under  the  charge  of  the  Subah  was  divided  into 
several  parganas  administered  by  officials  subordinate  to  the 
Subah  called  Kamaishdars.  The  pargana  was  again  divided 
into  villages  each  in  the  charge  of  a  gaontia  or  headman, 


206  Bll-ASrUR.       LAND    REVKNUE    ADMINISTRATION. 

usually  an  influential  cultivator,  who  made  himself  responsible 
for  the  collection  of  the  village  assessment,  and  received  in 
remuneration  for  his  services  one  plough  of  land  revenue  free 
in  every  eight  paying  revenue  to  Government,  and  an  allow- 
ance for  village  expenses  of  one  plough  of  land  in  sixteen, 
which  was  sown  with  his  own  seed  but  was  tilled  by  the  village 
community.  He  also  received  some  trifling  dues  on  the  sale 
of  agricultural  produce  in  his  village. 

The  revenue  assessment  was  subjected  to  annual  revision, 
and  the  total  demand  from  each  province  was  fixed  in  accord- 
ance with  instructions  from  Nagpur.  The  Subah  apportioned 
it  between  the  various  parganas  in  the  light  of  the  previous 
year's  collections.  The  pargana  assessment  was  apportioned 
between  the  various  villages  by  the  Kamaishdar  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  village  assessment  was  left  to  the  gaontia 
and  cultivators  to  settle  among  themselves. 

The  methods  by  which  the  revision  of  settlement  was 
carried  out  are  described  in  the  Settlement  Report  of  1868 
quoting  Sir  Richard  Jenkins'  Report  on  the  Nagpur  terri- 
tories (1827)  as  follows  : — 

167.  '  In   the   end    of    August,    the    Subahdar   of   the 

'  District  despatched  tabids  to  Kamaish- 
Collection  of  revenue.  j-        .•  ., 

dars  ot    parganas,  directing  them   to 

'  collect  one-third  of  the  annual  revenue,   according  to  the 

'  assessment  of  the  last  year,  and  to  remit  the  amount  to 

*  the  public  treasury  before   the  5th  Ashvin  (October).     On 

*  receipt  of  these  orders,  the  Kamaishdars  immediately 
'  despatched  chitthls  to  each  pxtel  or  gao7itia  directing  them 
'  to  repair  to  the  kasbali  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  sal, 
'  or  annual  assessment,  and  to  bring  with  them  the  instal- 
'  ment  then  due. 

168.  '  The  palels  and  gaontias,   complying  with  these 

*  directions,  assembled  at    the  kasbah. 
Mode  of  increase.  .  -. r    ,       ir  .   ,    ,_       ,  ,  .,, 

If  the  Kamaishdar  thought  a  village 
'  could  pay  more  than  it  had  done  in  the  preceding  year,  he 
'  demanded  about  double  the  increase  he  expected,  and,  after 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  20/ 

'  a  good  deal  of  discussion,  concluded  an  agreement  with  the 

*  gaontia  or  patel  for  the  current  year,  taking  from  the  latter 
'  what  was  called  a  wd-ada piirzciy  or  bond  in  which  the  amount 
'  of  assessment  agreed  upon  was  particularised,  and  an  engage- 

*  ment  entered  into  for  its  payment  before  the  expiration 
'  of   the   year    in    certain    kists    or    instalments.     It    also 

*  contained  an   agreement  to  pay  such  a  further  sum   as  the 

*  Subahdar  or  Sarkar  might  impose  on  the  country  generally. 

*  Ten  or  twelve  days  were  then  demanded  and  allowed  for 
'  collecting  and  paying  the  kist  already  due,  after  which  the 

*  patch  and  gaojitias  returned  to  their  villages.  On  these 
'  occasions,  and  whilst  discussing  the  amount  of  assessment, 

*  they  made  various  representations,  such  as  that  their  lands 
'  had  fallen  out  of  cultivation  from  epidemics  amongst  the  r3'ots 

*  or  their  cattle,  that  the  season  had  been  bad,  that  disturbances 
'  had  prevented  the  labours  of  the  field,  etc.  Of  these  the 
'  Kamaishdars  who  were  most  attentive  to  their  duty  took 
'  notes,  which,  in  some  cases,  they  made  the  ga on tz as  sign. 

169.  '  Thus   one-third    of   the   revenue,    corresponding 

'  generally  in   the  total    amount   from 
Balances. 

'  each   pargana,   but  not  in  the  assess- 

'  ment  on  each  village,  with  the  assessment  for  the  last  year, 

*  was  collected  and  paid  into  the  treasury  before  the  Dasahra 
'  (September  or  October).  If  any  remained  due  by  the 
'  payment  at  that  festival,  the  Subahdar  wrote  letters  urging 
'  its  immediate  payment,  and  if  they  were  not  attended  to,  he 
'  gave  a  berrat,  or  order,  on  the  Kamaishdar  to  send  troops  or 
'  others  who  exacted  payment.  The  second  instalment,  also 
'  of  one-third,   was  collected  by  a  precisely    similar  process, 

*  except  that  Kamaishdars  sent  the  revenue  peons  under  their 
'  authority,  who  are  in  most  parts  of  this  province  called 
'  biitkars,    sometimes     with    diits,     sometimes     without,     to 

*  receive  the  amount  from  each  patel  or  gaontia,  and  did  not 
'  summon  them  to  the  kasbah ;  the  5th  of  Pus  (January) 
'  being  the  date  within  which  it  was  to  be  paid  into  the 
'  treasury. 


208  DII.ASrUR.       LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION. 

170.  *  Between  the  collection  of  these  two  kists,    the 

'  most     active    and     zealous    of    the 
Kumaishdars' tours.  ,,  .   .    ,_  ,  ,  r    ^y     • 

'  Kamaislidars    made    a    tour    of  their 

*  parganas,  in  order  that  they  might  be  prepared  on  the 
'  coming  of  theSubnhdar  to  give  him  the  fullest  information, 
'  particularly  as  to  the  truth  or  otherwise  of  the  various  repre- 

*  sentations  made  to  them  by  the  patels  and  gaofitias,  of 
'  which,  in  settling  the  sal,  they  had  taken  notes,  and  had 
'  allowed  to  influence  them  in  reducing  or  increasing  that,  so 
'  as  to  fall  short  of,  or  exceed  the  assessment  of  the  past  year. 
*The  third  instalment  or  the  remaining  third  was  payable  on 
'  the  5tli  of  Chait  (April)  and  was  collected  in  the  same 
'  manner  as  the  second. 

171,  'The  Subahdar,  having  received  the  second  instal- 

'mentof  the    revenue,  commenced  his 

Siibahdar's  visits.        ,  „        ,  ,  ,     r  t 

'  tour  generally  about  the  end  ot  January. 
'  He  previously  apprized  the  Kamaishdars  of  his  approach 
'  and  directed  them  to  assemble  all  the  patels  and  gaofitias. 
'  He  visited  each  kasbaJi  of  the  pargana.  On  arriving  he 
'  called  upon  the  Kamaishdars  and  Farnavlses  (accountants) 
'  for  the  kachchd  account  of  the  collections  made  in  the  last 

*  year,  and,  having  received  them,  he  heard  in  public  kachahri 
*all  that  the  patels  or  gaontias,  or  ryots  might  wish  to  state. 

*  From  th.eir  representations,  from  the  report  of  the  Kamaish- 
'dclrs,  from  his  own  public  and  secret  enquiries,  and  advert- 
'  ing  to  the  orders    he  had  received  from  Nagpur,  he    deler- 

*  mined  whether  to  confirm  or  alter  (which  he  was  understood 
'  to  have  the  power  of  doing)  the  j-^/ settled  by  the  Kamaishdar. 

*  When  an  increase  was  thought  necessary,  as  was  generally 
'  the  case,  that  was  enforced  more  by  the  weight  of  the 
'  Subahdar  than  by  any  compulsory  measures,  and  was  seldom 

*  carried  into  effect,  without  the  consent,  although  perhaps 
'yielded  reluctantly,  of  the  patels  and  gaontias.  If  any 
'  particular  giontia,  however,  would  not  come  into  the  general 
'  arrangement  and  complained  of  the  sum  at  which  his  village 
'  was  assessed,  the  Subahdar  instituted  an  enquiry,  which 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  209 

'enabled   him  to  compare  the  payments  it  had   made  in  the 

*  past  year,  with  those  made  by  the  neighbouring  villages  ; 
« he  then  ascertained  their  relative  states,  and  decided  upon 
'  the  representation  by  the  result.  If  that  was  not  satisfac- 
'  torv  to  the  complainant,  the  village  '-vas  offered  to  another,  and 
♦where  a  candidate  stood  forward,  which  was  generally  pre- 
-arranged beforehand,  the  objection  was  either  withdrawn, 
*as  was  commonly  the  case,  or  the  gwntia  was  changed. 

172.  'Thus  the  bdki  account  and   whole  assessment  of 

*  the  current  year  was   finally  fixed,   and 

His  accounts,  ^     ^  1     1  1 

'  a  copy   of  the  thalirao,   or   settlement 

*  entered  in  the  daftars,  was  taken  b3'  the  Farnavis  of  the  par- 

*  gana.  In  it  was  stated  the  bdki  from  the  last  year,  the  total 
'revenue  for  the  current  year,  the  instalments  in  which  it  was 
'  to  be  paid,  the  expenses  allowed   for  the   nidi  ma.zkur,    the 

*  deduction  for  mukdsa  villages,  dhanudd:o,  devasthdn  and 
'  ne7Hnuks,\\\t  amount  which  had  already  been  paid  to  tlie 
'  Sarkar  and  the  balance  that  would  remain  due.  For  this  latter 
•sum,  the  Kamaishdar's  receipt,  payable  within  a  limited  time, 

*  was  taken.  The  complaints  of  ryots  against  patels  and 
'^a(7«//^,y  were  also  attended  to  by  theSubahdar,  but  what  the 
'latter  might  have  improperly  collected  was  appropriated  by 
'  the  Government,  and  was  not  returned  to  the  aggrieved  party. 
'Complaints  of  oppression  and  on  all  other  points  were  like- 
'  wise  heard,  investigated,  and  redressed,  to  the  extent  which 
'accorded  with  the  views  and  habits  of  t!\e  Subahdar, 

173.  'AH  these  matters  having  been  gone  through,  the 

'Subahdar    addressed    the    cultivators 
Procedure    with    the      .  ^^^  ^^^^^^^  assembled  ill  the  kacha/in, 

people.  ' 

'  in  terms  of  encouragement,  telling  the 
'  former  the  amount  at  which  the  whole  pargana  had  been 
'  assessed,  for  it  does  not  appear  to  have  ever  been  the  practice 

*  to  inform  each  palel  oi'  gaoutia  of  the  exact  sum  his  village 
'  was    to   pay,   although   he   miglit  by  attending  tlie  kachahri 

*  pick  up  that  information.  He  then  dismissed  them,  sometimas 
'giving  them  ?i\\  pan ;  at  others,  that  form  was    omitted;  but 

EE 


210  lUl.AM'UR.        lAND    RI  VKNIF.    ADMINISTRATION. 

•  to  the  head  patrls  and  i^nontins  he  always  gave  cloths,  inform- 
'  ing  the  rest  that  a  remission  of  one  and  seven-eighths 
'  percent,  on  the  a{)i  auk,  about  two-fifths  of  tlie  whole  revenue, 
'  would  be  granted  them  in  lieu  of  sirpaos,.as  this  annual  pre- 
•sent  of  cloths  is  here  termed. 

174.   'Thus  the  Siibnhdar  completed  his  tour  in  eight  or 
'  ten    weeks,  when    he    commenced    to 

His  responsibility. 

'close  the  annual  accounts  and  to  pre- 
'  pare  those  to  be  sent  to  Nagpur.  He  also  took  similar  mea- 
'suresto  those  before  described,  for  realising  the  last  ^/.y/. 
'  On  the  expiraiion  of  the /.nV/ year  in  June,  he  sent  off  takids 
'  to  call  the   Farnavises  of  parganas  wilh  the  accounts  of  the 

*  year.  On  their  arrival  they  were  compared  with  the  accounts 
*of  the  Subah,  difterences  explained  and  reconciled,  the 
'expenditure  of  Kamaishdars  finall}'  examined^  and  their 
'  receipts  required,  payable  in  a  certain  time,  or  an  order  given 
'upon    them   for    all    sums   not    admitted,  as  well  as  for  any 

*  balance  of  revenue  remaining  due,  unless  they  had  apphed 
'for  an  extension  of  time  in  favour  of  certain  individuals, 
'  whose  particular  circumstances  prevented  them  from  imme- 

*  diately  liquidating  the  demands  against  them,  and  could  state 
'  that  they  were  in  possession  of  their  receipts  for  the  amount, 
'in  which  cases  from  one  to  three  months  were  granted  for 
'the  recover}'  of  such  sums.' 

175.  The  apportionment  of  the  revised  village   demand 

among  the  ryots  was  carried  out  in  the 

Apportionment  of  the      following  manner.  The  revised  revenue 

village  assessment.  ° 

demand  was  not  announced  to  the 
gaontias  until  seven  months  of  the  year  had  passed,  and  until 
two  instalments  of  revenue,  the  amounts  of  which  were  based 
on  those  of  the  preceding  3'ear,  had  been  actually  paid  by 
them.  It  was  necessary  therefore  to  devise  a  system  by 
which  the  relative  responsibility  of  each  ryot  for  the  pa}'- 
ment  of  the  revenue  could  be  fixed  irrespectivel}-  of  the  amount 
of  which  such  payment  might  consist.  In  the  Nagpur  coun- 
try the  desired  result  was  attained  by  giving  a  proportionate 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  211 

value  to  each  field  iii  the  main  portion  of  the  village  lands, 
which  represented  its  revenue-paying  capacity  in  relation  to 
the  other  fields  of  the  village.  This  was  called  its  am,  and 
was  ordinarily  expressed  in  annas  or  in  cowries  per  rupee. 
In  Chhattisgarh,  on  the  other  hand,  each  of  the  more  well 
established  ryots  of  the  village  made  himself  responsible  for 
a  share  in  the  revenue  proportionate  to  the  number  of 
'  ploughs  '  of  land  which  he  held  ;  or  in  the  words  of  Sir  B. 
Fuller  in  his  note  on  the  Land  Revenue  Settlements  of 
the  Central     Provinces    (i586) — 'In   Nagpur    a    man    paid 

*  according  to  the  aiiis  of  his  fields ;  in  Chhattisgarli  he  held 

*  fields  according  to  the  ams  of  himself. '  A  '  plough  '  of 
land  was  an  elastic  measure,  the  actual  extent  of  which 
varied  largely  in  different  tracts,  but  which  was  intended  to 
represent  the  aiea  which  one  plough  and  four  oxen  could 
cultivate.  In  most  of  Chhattisgarh  in  general,  and  in  the  east 
and  the  centre  of  the  Bilaspur  District  in  particular,  there  is 
considerable  diversity  of  soil,  and  in  order  to  ensure  fair  dis- 
tribution it  was  necessary  that  each  '  plough  '  should  contain 
samples  of  all  the  various  sorts  of  soil  which  t!;e  village  lands 
coinprised.  The  village  lands  were  accordingly  divided  into 
blocks,  each  of  which  was  considered  to  be  of  uniform  value ; 
a  certain  p'-oportion  of  each  of  these  blocks  was  appro- 
priated by  ihe  gaontia  for  his  own  cultivation,  and  ihe  rest 
was  divided  by  the  ryots  among  themselves  in  accordance  with 
the  number  of  '  ploughs  '  of  land  for  which  each  was  respon- 
sible. Besides  the  better  established  ryots  of  the  village  there 
were  a  number  of  others  who  were  unable  to  make  themselves 
responsible  for  a  share  of  the  assessment,  but  held  land 
broken  up  from  waste  outside  of  the  main  cultivated  area  of 
the  village,  for  which  they  paid  rent  in  cash  or  kind.  As  cul- 
tivation expanded  and  these  men  advanced  in  the  world,  and 
desired  to  come  in  as  sharers  in  the  revenue  responsibility 
of  the  village,  and  as  the  multiplication  of  families  and  other 
vicissitudes  brought  about  changes  in  the  numbers  and  status 
of  the  better  established  ryots,  the  distribution  of  the  land  by 


2  12  BM-ASI'UK.       LAND    RKVl-NL'l-:    ADMIMSTKATION. 

ijegiecs  became  iiicquiiable.  On  tliis  being  represented  to 
llic  giKyntia,  be,  in  consultation  vvitli  tbe  ryots,  made  a  new 
distribution  of  tbe  village  lands.  This  custom  of  periodical 
redistribution,  locally  known  as  Idlihabauta,  could  only  have 
been  possible  in  a  tract  where  the  supply  of  land  was  much 
greater  than  the  demand  for  it,  and  wiiere  little  attachment  to 
it  was  felt  by  Us  holdeis;  and  the  people  of  Chi.ttisgarh  were 
described,  by  Sir  Richard  Jenkins  in  1827  as  '  less  attached  to 

♦  the  soil  and  more  migratory  than  is  commonly  the  case   in 

•  other  parts  of  India.'  Ii  has  long  since  died  out  tinder  the 
influence  of  competition  and  the  grant  of  definite  rights  in 
definite  areas,  but  it  has  left  a  legacy  of  holdings  scattered 
in  small  plots  all  over  the  village  which  are  most  noticeable 
at  the  present  day 

176.  The  modifications  of  the  MarLtha  revenue   system 

introduced   by   the  British    regency    in 

i.h  regency  and  subse-      »8i8     mauily   took    the    form     of   the 

qnent  settlements  until  abortion  of  supplementary  revenue 
1868.  ^^  -^ 

demands  forming  no  part  of  the  regular 

assessment,  the  fixation  of  the  times  for  the  payment  of  the 
instalments  at  periods  convenient  to  the  ryots,  the  grant  of 
receipts  for  paj^ment  to  the  gaontias,  the  abolition  of  the 
revenue  officials'  unauthorised  perquisites  and  the  fixation  of 
their  salaries,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  Kamaishdar,  amounted 
to  one  and  a  half  per  cent,  on  the  gross  collections.  No 
radical  change  of  the  method  of  assessment  was  attempted, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  then  expected  that  the  British 
administration  would  only  be  tempo^ar3^  During  the  currency 
of  the  protectorate  the  revenue  collections  of  the  khalsa  of  the 
District  rose  from  Rs  95,935  in  i8i«  to  Rs.  99,285  in  1829. 
On  the  termination  of  the  iiritish  protectorate  the  village 
assessments  were  generally  light,  for,  inasmuch  as  the 
total  cash  receipts  of  the  village  were  generally  appropriated 
bv  the  government,  and  the  village  profits  were  mainly  con- 
fined to  the  gaoutia's  home  farm,  there  was  little  outside  com- 
petition for  villages,  and  undue  severity  of  assessment  would 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  2I3 

have  resulted  in  relinquishment  in  view  of  the  absence  of 
attachment  by  the  people  to  the  soil.  After  the  resumption 
of  the  administration  by  the  Raja  RaghujI  II  they  increased 
from  Rs.  1,08,625  in  1830  to  Rs.  1,46,867  in  1854,  when  the 
District  lapsed  to  the  British  Government.  On  the  occurrence 
of  the  latter  event,  the  difference  in  value  between  the  Nagpur 
and  the  Company's  rupees  produced  an  apparent  decrease 
of  the  assessment  to  Rs.  1,22,016.  Thereafter  three  summary 
settlements  at  intervalsof  three  years  enhanced  the  demand  to 
Rs.  1,43,20^.  In  order  to  get  the  total  assessment  of  the 
District  before  the  first  regular  settlement  of  1868,  there 
must  be  added  to  this  figure  the  sums  of  Rs.  7968  being 
the  assessment  of  the  Bhutia  and  Sarslwa  tracts  transferred 
from  the  Sambalpur  District  in  1S65,  and  Rs.  13,495  being 
the  assessment  of  the  zammdaris.  The  latter  were  held  on 
light  quit-revenues  more  of  the  nature  of  feudal  tribute  than 
of  land  revenue.  The  incidents  of  their  tenure  have  been 
described  elsewhere  and  need  not  be  enlarged  upon  here. 
Their  payments  were  fixed  at  the  sum  above-mentioned  by 
the  British  Superintendent  of  Chhattisgarh  in  1820,  and  were 
not  revised  uniil  the  settlement  of  1868. 

i"]"].  The  total  revenue  demand  of  the  Bilaspur  District 
as    then    constituted  thus  amounted  to 

The  first  regular   set-      ,p,  .  /z  .  ^^        i_r  .1        r- 

tlement.  ^^     •i>o4-92i    before  the  first  regular 

settlement.  The  operations  then  under- 
taken under  the  charge  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Chisholm  included  in  the 
khdlsa  the  delimitation  and  survey  of  each  vidage,  the 
classing  of  the  soil  on  a  simple  system,  and  the  preparation 
of  an  exhaustive  record  of  rights  In  pursuance  of  the 
decision  of  Government  to  confer  proprietary  rights  on 
the  village ^a<7«//ax,  who  had  hitherto  been,  as  their  alternative 
name  of  mdlgxizdis  implies,  more  or  less  in  the  position 
of  mere  revenue  farmers,  enquiries  were  instituted  in  each 
village  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  person  or  persons 
entitled  to  the  grant;  and  the  person  or  persons,  in  whose 
favour  a  finding  was  arrived  at,  -.vas  or  were  given  a  formal 


214  nil.ASPUR.       I.ANi:)    RKVENUE    ADMINISTRATION. 

patent  conferring  proprietorship  upon  him  or  them.  The 
length  of  the  tenure  of  his  holding  by  each  ryot  was  also  inves- 
tigated, and  as  a  result  of  the  enquiry  he  was  invested  with 
status  as  an  j.bsolute  occupancy,  occupancy,  or  ordinary  tenant 
as  the  case  might  be;  or,  in  cases  where  the  immemorial 
character  of  his  tenure  or  other  special  circumstances  gave  him 
a  claim  to  the  proprietorship  of  his  holding  superior  to  that  of 
the  '^-(loiitia  of  the  village  in  which  it  was  situated,  he  was 
declared  to  be  a  plot-proprietor.  An  administration  paper  was 
also  drawn  up  for  each  village  setting  forth  the  system  of  village 
management  and  of  the  division  of  the  profits,  the  conditions  of 
rent  or  revenue-free  assignments,  the  respective  rights  of  the 
proprietors  and  tenants  with  regard  to  the  principal  matters  of 
every  day  importance  to  the  village  community,  and  details  of 
special  village  customs.  The  conferral  of  fixit}'  of  tenure 
coupled  with  the  increasing  demand  for  land  as  the  area  of 
waste  diminished,  has  entirely  changed  the  attitude  of  the 
people  towards  the  land.  The  custom  oi  lakhabdta  had  entirely 
disappeared  before  the  second  settlement  in  1888,  and  the 
remarks  in  the  1868  Settlement  Report  on  the  unsettled  nature 
of  cultivation  in  this  District  are  now  matters  of  curious 
historical  interest.  Simultaneously  with  the  progress  of  settle-, 
ment,  enquiries  were  instituted  into  the  title  to  the  large  u'aste 
areas  which  existed  in  the  north  of  the  khalsa,  and  proprietary 
right  was  only  conferred  in  respect  of  the  cultivated  area  of 
each  village,  together  with  an  additional  area  of  waste  sufifi- 
cient  for  the  requirements  of  tlie  people.  Ihe  excess  waste 
areas  which  amounted  to  443,5001  acres  or  7  per  cent,  of  the 
total  area  of  the  District,  were  constituted  Government  forest. 
178.  The  revision  of  the  revenue  assessment  was  carried 
out  b}'  a  modification  of  the  a  priori 

Revision    of    revenue  .1      j         r  ^i        tit      -,i  -    r^  ,. 

asses-sment.  iTietiiods  of  the   Maratha  Government. 

An  aggregate  revenue  was  calculated  for 


*.  As  tlien  approximately  measured.  The  exact  area  as  ascertained 
at  the  foiest  survey  ciiried  out  in  the  concluding  years  of  the  19th 
century  was  425,546  acres. 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  21$ 

the  pargana  or  group  by  the  apphcation  of  an  all-round  average 
rate  per  acre  which  was  arrived  at  by  enhancing  the  acreage 
incidence  of  the  existing  revenue  to  a  degree  which  seemed 
warranted  by  the  appreciation  of  the  value  of  agricultural 
produce  since  the  last  revision,  and  by  the  circumstances  of 
the  tract.  The  assessment  of  the  pargana  was  then  distributed 
over  its  component  villages  by  means  of  soil  rates,  wliich 
were  based  upon  the  relative  productiveness  of  the  various 
classes  of  soil  as  ascertained  from  the  statements  of  the 
people  and  by  actual  experiment.  ^These  rates,  modified  where 
necessary  in  view  of  special  village  conditions,  were  applied 
to  the  areas  of  the  different  classes  of  soil  in  cultivation  in 
each  village,  and  the  result  was  to  give  the  revised  village 
assessment.  This  having  been  determined,  the  Settlement 
Officer  proceeded  to  fix  the  revised  rents  payable  by  each 
tenant  to  the  proprietors,  having  regard  to  the  soils  included 
in  his  holding  and  his  own  financial  status.  The  fixation 
was  carried  out  in  the  villages  in  the  presence  of  ludlgnzdr 
and  tenant,  and  was  generall}'  arrived  at  by  mutual  agreement, 
rents  being  only  fixed  judiciall}'  in  ca^e  of  dispute. 

179.  In  ihezamindaris  no  detailed  survey  was  attempted 
except    in  Kanteli  which  is  completely 

The  zamlndari  settle-  jiu  j--i       ^        1       ,  1  -, 

meiu.  surrounded  by,andsmiilar  \.o,\.\{&khalsa- 

Each  estate  was  demarcated,  and' a 
rough  map  on  a  small  scale  was  prepared,  showing  the  prin- 
cipal physical  features  of  the  tract  and  the  positions  of  the 
various  villages.  Estimates  of  the  area  in  cultivation  were 
prepared,  and  to  this  area  was  applied  a  low  acreage  rate  from 
which  was  deduced  an  estimate  of  the  revised  rental  valuation 
of  each  village.  Half  of  this  sum,  unless  special  circumstances 
rendered  modification  necessary,  was  taken  as  the  full  demand 
or  kdinUjavid  of  the  village,  which  the  zamlndar  actually 
received  from  inferior  proprietors,  and  might  expect  to  receive 
from  villages  held  by  lessees.  These  village  kdmiljainds, 
together  with  the  rental  valuation  of  the  zamlndars'  own 
home   farm,    formed    the   estimate   of  their   regular  income 


2l6  niLASPUR.       LAND    Rr.VKNUF.    ADMINISTRATION. 

from  land,  the  assessment  imposed  on  which  absorbed  from 
about  25  per  cent,  to  33  per  cent,  of  the  estimated* receipts. 
In  addition  to  these  the  zamlnd;irs  derived  considerable 
incomes  from  their  forests,  and  from  various  miscellaneous 
sources  of  revenue,  such  as  excise  ?cc\di  pdndhri  (or  a  sort  of 
income-tax),  which,  in  view  of  their  semi-independent  status, 
they  had  from  time  immemorial  been  allowed  to  appropriate  by 
the  Government,  their  lump  annual  takoli  or  tribute  releasing 
them  from  any  further  contributions  under  these  heads.  It 
was  ruled  that  they  should  continue  to  reap  the  advantage  of 
adminislering  these  miscellaneous  items  of  revenue,  and  that 
the  proportion  fairly  realisable  by  the  State  should  be  included 
in  their  revised  takoli.  To  attain  this  end  these  items  of  in- 
come were  assessed  at  50  per  cent,  of  the  average  net  assets. 
The  settlement  operations,  besides  the  re-assessment  of 
the  revenue  demand,  included  enquiries  into  the  claims  of 
the  village  lessees  holding  from  the  zanilndars  to  protection 
from  arbitrary  eviction.  In  231  villages  they  were  granted 
the  status  of  inferior  proprietors,  mainly  on  the  ground,  either 
of  relationship  to  the  zamlndars,  or  of  having  founded  their 
villages  or  held  them  uninterruptedly  for  long  periods.  In 
65  villages  they  were  created  plot-proprietorii  of  their  home 
farm,  and  in  93  were  declared  to  be  entitled  to  the  rights  of 
occupancy  tenants  in  their  home  farm  in  the  event  of  future 
dispossession  from  the  lease  of  the  village. 

180.  Besides  the  zamindaris  there  were  two  large  estates 

in     the     District,    namely    Lormi    and 

The  tahuts.  _        ,,     ,     _,  ...  11, 

Tarenga,  called  ta/iuts,  which  were  held 

on  conditions  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  taliikddri 
tenure.  These  estates  were  included  in  the  k/id/sa,  and  were 
settled  village  by  village  in  the  same  manner  as  ordinary 
malguzari  villages,  and  the  idUiitddrs  were  liable  to  pay  the  full 
revenue  demand  assessed.  In  the  case  of  Tarenga  the  estate 
was,  in  accordance  with  family  custom,  declared  to  be  imparti- 
ble for  so  long  as  the  then /'J/u</r/<rr'5  family  held  it.  No  such 
restriction    was    imposed    on    the   subdivision   of    the  Lorini 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  21/ 

estate.     In  these  estates  and  in  the  rest    of  the   khdlsa   the 
claims  of  village  lessees  to  protection  were    enquired  into. 
In    125   villages    they    were    created    inferior    proprietors, 
and    in    in    were    declared    to    be    entitled    to     absolute 
occupancy  rights  in  their  home  farm  in  the  event  of  dispos- 
session from   their  leases.     The  general  result  of  the  revision 
of  settlement   was  to  enhance    the  revenue  demand    of  the 
khdlsa   from  Rs.    1,51,170  to  Rs.  2,51,934,  and  that  of  the 
zaralndaris  from  Rs.  13,495  to  Rs.   25,077.     In  the  khdlsa 
the  revised  demand  absorbed  57  per  cent,  of  the  assets  and  the 
incidence  of  revenue  per  cultivated  acre  was  4  annas  i  pie; 
while  the  incidence  per  acre  of  the  payments  of  plot-proprie- 
tors and  tenants  were  respectively  R.  0-5-2  and  R.  O-7-3. 
181.  The  settlement  of  1868  expired  in  1888  and  in  the 
enquiries    preliminary   to    its  revision, 
seuLmenr"*^    ''^'''"'     it  was  found  that  the    1868  settlement 
maps,  which  had    to   start    with    been 
prepared  without    a  traverse,    had  not  been  brought  up    to 
date,  and  that  the  annual  village  papers  were  unreliable  and 
defective,  and  it  was  decided  to  resurvey  the  khdlsa. 

The  survey  was  made  by  the  Survey  of  India,  who 
in  this  District  not  merely  laid  down  a  traverse  but  also 
carried  out  the  details  of  the  cadastral  surve}'.  The  opera- 
tions lasted  from  1884  to  1889,  and  their  result  was  to  give 
this  District  an  unusually  accurate  set  of  maps.  Attestation 
was  started  in  1886  and  was  completed  in  1890.  The  opera- 
tions were  started  by  Mr.  L.  S.  Carey,  but  he  was  shortly  after- 
wards transferred  to  Raipur  and  the  settlement  was  continued 
and  completed  b}'  Rai  Bahadur  Purshottam  Das.  The  records 
prepared  at  survey  were  scrutinised  by  the  settlement  staff,  and 
the  usual  system  of  soil  classification  was  adopted,  the  simple 
scale  of  soil-factors  adopted  in  the  homogeneous  tract  of 
Mungell  being  very  considerably  elaborated  in  the  more 
diverse  areas  of  the  Bilaspur  and  Seorlnarayan  tahslls.  The 
method  of  assessment  employed  was  that  now  universally  adop- 
ted, by  which  the  revenue  assessment  is  built  up  a  postei-iori 

FF 


2l8 


niLASPUR.       LAND    RKVF.NUK    ADMINISTRATION. 


on  the  basis  of  the  revised  rental  demand  and  valuation  of  home 
farm,  and  the  miscellaneous  receipts  of  the  village  proprietors. 
It  was  discovered  that  the  acreage  incidence  of  the  pay- 
ments of  protected  tenants  had  risen  considerably  since  the 
1868  settlement,  despite  the  legal  prohibition  of  the  enliance- 
nient  of  the  rents  of  absolute  occupancy  tenants  and  the  restric- 
tion imposed  by  law  on  the  enhancement  of  the  rents  of  occu- 
pancy tenants  during  the  currency  of  the  settlement.  The 
acreage  incidence  of  absolute  occupancy  rents  was  found  to 
have  risen  from  R.  0-7-6  to  R.  0-8-4  and  that  of  occupancy 
rents  from  R.  0-7-3  to  R-  0-S-4.  These  results  were  due  to 
extensive  rent  concealment  practised  at  the  1868  settlement 
which  was  subsequently  discovered.  The  spontaneous  rise  of 
the  acreage  incidence  of  ordinary  rents  was  from  R.  0-7- 1  to 
R.  0-9-3.  This  increase  was  in  part  due  to  rent  concealment 
in  1868,  and  in  part  to  natural  development  and  an  increased 
demand  for  land  ;  for  between  1868  and  1888  the  area  occu- 
pied for  cultivation  expanded  from  51  per  cent,  to  68  per  cent, 
of  the  total  area.  The  effect  of  the  revision  of  settlement  on 
the  payments  of  plot-proprietors  was  to  raise  their  acreage 
incidence  from  R.  0-5  2  to  R.  0-7-7.  The  acreage  incidences 
of  the  rents  of  the  various  classes  of  tenants  underwent  the 
following  enhancements : — 


Absolute  occupancy  tenants 
Occupancy  tenants 
Ordinar3'  tenants    ... 
All  classes  of  tenants 


From 
Rs.    a.  p. 

084 
084 

093 
080 


To 
Rs     a. 


p. 

10 

7 
10 

9 


Village  assiets  in  1868  stood  as  follows: — 


Payments  of  tenants  and  plot-proprietors 
Rental   valuation  of  home  farm   and  land  le 

free  of  rent  to  privileged  tenants 
Miscellaneous  income 

Total 


Rs. 
3.31,158 

1,08,688 
3.290 

443,136 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  219 

The  revision  of  settlement  raised  them  to  the  following 

figures : — 

Rs 

Payments  of  tenants  and  plot-proprietors  ...  6,80,641 

Rental  valuation  of   home  farm    and  land  held 

rent-free  by  privileged  tenants    ...  ...  1,71,774 

Siwai             ...                                  ...  ...  25,549 


Total  ...     8,77964 

The  revenue  demand  was  enhanced  from  Rs.  2,51,737 
(to  which  sum  slight  changes  since   1868  had  reduced  the 
assessment  then  fixed;  to  Rs.  4,74,678,  and  its  incidence  per 
cultivated  acre  was  raised  from  R.  0-4-1  to  R.  0-5-6.     The 
revised  assessment  absorbed  55  per  cent,  of  the  total  assets. 
Six  small  villages  which  had  been  excised  from  Govern- 
ment  forest   were   surveyed   and   settled    on    the   r3'otwari 
system.     The   assessment    imposed   on    the   occupied   area 
amounted  to  Rs.  457  with  an  acreage  incidence  of  R.  0-6-1. 
182.  In  the  zamindaris  no  survey  was  undertaken  but  a 
summary  settlement  was  made  on  the 

The  zamindaris. 

basis  of  existing  receipts.  The  pay- 
ments to  be  made  by  inferior  proprietors  were  determined, 
and  in  the  case  of  villages  held  direct  by  the  zamlndars  or 
by  lessees  the  kdmiljainds  were  fixed  at  approximately  60 
per  cent,  of  the  assets.  The  aggregate  kdmiljaDids  of  all 
villages  amounted  to  Rs.  1,19,893  or  58  per  cent,  of  the 
assets  (Rs.  2,04,309).  The  revised  land  revenue  takoli 
assessed  on  the  zamlndars  amounted  in  the  aggregate  to 
Rs.  42,000  or  21  per  cent,  of  the  gross  village  assets  and  35 
per  cent,  of  the  revised  kdmiljanids.  In  addition  to  the 
land  revenue  takoll  the  receipts  of  the  zamlndars  from  their 
forests,  from  their  excise  monopoly,  and  horn  pdnd/iri  were 
separately  assessed.  The  details  of  receipts  and  assessment 
are  shown  on  the  next  page. 

In  the  case  of  these  items  the  settlement  was  declared 
liable  to  revision  after  three  years,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  in 


220 


IlLASrUR.       LAND    KEVENUE    ADMINISTRATION. 


Income. 

Takoli. 

Percentage 

of  takoli  on 

income. 

Excise 

Forests 

Pandhri 

Rs. 
1 1, 86 1 
42,279 

1657 

Rs. 

5570 
14,310 

802 

47 
34 
48 

the  case  of  the  forest  takoli  no  revision  has  been  undertaken 
until  the  expiry  of  the  land-revenue  settlement.  In  two 
zamindaris,  Champa  and  Kanteli,  which  were  almost  complete- 
ly surrounded  by  khdlsa  villages  and  which  formed  undesir- 
able centres  of  smuggling,  the  excise  rights  were  resumed. 
In  certain  zamindaris  the  police  employed  in  the  estate  were 
maintained  by  the  zamindars,  in  others  by  Government. 
From  the  owners  of  the  latter  estates  an  additional  contribu-» 
tion  towards  the  cost  of  the  force  amounting  in  the  aggregate 
to  Rs.  3960  was  levied. 

Ihe  total  effect  of  the  revision  of  settlement  was  thus  to 
increase  the  demand  from  the  zamindars  from  Rs.  25,077  to 
Rs.  66,642. 

183.  The  total  revised  revenue  demand  of  the  District 
thus  amounted  to  Rs.  5,41,777,  In 
cefsroTu.c'St!'"'  ="idition  to  tV.is  sun,  the  following 
cesses  were  levied  from  the  proprie- 
tors:— Road,  school,  and  post  cess  at  5^  per  cent,  on  the  land 
revenue  ;  additional  rate  (a  contribution  towards  the  expendi- 
ture on  famine  relief  levied  under  Act  X  of  1S78)  at  2  per 
cent. ;  patwari  cess  at  6  per  cent.  To  the  last  two  of  these 
cesses  the  tenantry  were  also  called  upon  to  contribute.  All 
tenants  paid  patwari  cess  at  the  rate  of  i  anna  per  rupee  of 
their  rents  and  the  village  proprietors  were  authorised  to  levy, 
from  absolute  occupancy  andoccupancy  tenants  a  contribution 
towards  the  additional  rate  of  \  per  cent,  on  their  rents. 


LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION.  221 

184.  The  principal  events  of  imporiance  since  the   1888 

settlement  have  been  (i)  the  survey  of 

_  Subsequent  events  of      jj^g  zamlndaris     Carried   out   between 

importance. 

the  years  1891  and  189/;  (2)  the 
revision  of  the  settlement  of  the  Bandhi  group  of  the  Mungeli 
tahsil  by  Mr.  C  E.  Low  in  1900,  when  a  short  term  settle- 
ment resulting  in  a  reduction  of  revenue  by  Rs.  936  was 
made  in  consequence  of  the  serious  deterioration  of  the  tract 
in  the  famines  ;  (3)  the  temporary  abatement  of  rents  and 
revenue  in  -the  neighbouring  zamindari  of  Pandaria  for 
similar  reasons  which  resulted  in  the  reduction  of  the  zamln- 
dar's  takoli  by  Rs.  7000  for  the  three  years  1 900-01,  1901- 
02  and  1902-03;  (4)  the  resumption  of  the  excise  rights 
previously  held  by  most  of  the  zamindars  of  the  Distiict  in 
1893,  the  abolition  oi  pandliri  in  1903,  the  resumption  in 
1893  by  Government  of  the  management  of  the  zamindari 
police  in  the  estates  which  had  previously  maintained  their 
own  forces,  and  the  levy  of  the  contributions  towards  the 
maintenance  of  the  force  provisionally  fixed  by  the  Settlement 
Officer  in  1888  in  anticipation  of  this  event  (which  was 
accompanied  in  some  cases  by  reduction  of  the  takoli  as 
compensation  for  loss  o^  aiuoiir  pyoprc);  {^)  the  abolition 
of  the  additional  rate  in  1905  and  the  patwari  cess  in  1906. 

The  effect  of  the  second  and  fourth  of  the  above  changes 
and  of  other  minor  modifications  of  the  demand  due  to  land 
acquisition,  etc.,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  ■i,'/  villages  of  which 
the  kamiljamas  were  at  settlement  included  in  the  total  revised 
malguzari  revenue  demand  were  held  either  wholly  or  partially 
free  of  revenue,  had  by  the  revenue  year  1904  05  been  to 
reduce  the  total  regular  land-revenue  demand  actually  realis- 
able to  Rs.  5,26,256  (zamindari  Rs.  61,816,  malguzari 
Rs.  4,63,975,  ryotwari  Rs.  465).  In  1905-06  the  changes  of 
the  District  boundary  consequent  on  the  transfer  of  the 
Sambalpur  District  to  Bengal  and  the  creation  of  the  new 
Drug  District  which  have  been  described  in  a  former  chapter 
resulted   in  the  reduction  of   the  demand  to  Rs.   4,08,816 


222  BILASPUR.       LAND    REVENUE    ADMINISTRATION. 

(zamlndari  Rs.  56,009,  malguzari  Rs.  3,52,406,  ryotwari 
Rs.  401).  This  sum  has  since  been  increased  by  the 
announcement  in  1906  of  the  revised  assessment  of  the  tract 
transferred  to  this  District  from  Sambalpur  in  1905,  and  by 
the  lapse  of  certain  revenue-free  assignments  ;  and  the  total 
regular  land-revenue  demand  of  the  present  Bilaspur  District 
stood  in  1907-08  at  Rs.  4,16,533  (zamlndari  Rs.  56,009, 
malguzari  Rs.  3,60,121,  ryotwari  Rs.  403).  The  settlement 
of  the  District  is  at  present  under  revision,  but  it  is  not  as  yet 
possible  to  give  an  accurate  description  of  the  result  of  the 
operations. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GENERAL  ADMINISTRATION. 

185.   The  District  is  included  in  the  Chhattlsgarh  Divi- 
sion and  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 

Administrative  Staff.  r    t         r~v        ■  t       ■ 

Commissioner  of  tliat  Division.  It  is 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Divisional  Judge  of  that  Division 
who  is  also  the  Sessions  Judge.  It  is  administered  by  the 
Deputy  Commissioner,  who  is  also  the  District  Magistrate  and 
the  District  Registrar.  He  has  also  jurisdiction  within  rail- 
way limits  in  the  Native  States  of  Sakti  and  Raigarh  on  the 
east,  and  Rewah  on  the  north  and  over  European  British  sub- 
jects within  the  Native  States  of  Sakti,  Raigarh  and  Kawar- 
dha.  He  has  a  sanctioned  staff  of  four  Assistants  exercising 
full  powers. 

The  District  is  divided  into  three  tahslls,  Bilaspur,  Janj- 
gir,  Mungeli,  each  tahsll  being  a  Subdivision  under  an 
Assistant,  who  is  the  Subdivisional  Magistrate.  There  was  a 
redistribution  of  the  tahslls  on  the  ist  January  1906  after  the 
addition  to  this  District  of  a  tract  from  Sambalpur  on  the  i6th 
October  1905  and  the  formation  of  the  Drug  District.  Even 
after  the  redistribution,  either  of  the  two  tahslls  (Bilaspur 
and  Janjgir)  is  as  large  in  area  and  population  as  many 
Districts  of  the  Central  Provinces.  The  zamlndari  country 
has  been  much  opened  out  of  recent  years  in  consequence 
of  the  construction  of  railways,  and  need  is  felt  of  additional 
tahsTli  staff.  For  each  tahsll  there  is  a  Tahslldar  and 
Naib-tahsildar  The  Bilaspur  tahsil  contains  1 1 18  revenue 
villages  {khdlsa  627,  zamindaris  491)  of  which  48  are 
uninhabited  {khdlsa  23,  zamindaris  25).  The  Janjgir  tahsil 
contains  1399  revenue  villages  [khdlsa  760,  zamindaris  639) 
of  which  62  are  uninhabited  {khdlsa  18,  zamindaris  44). 
The  Mungeli  tahsil  contains  926  revenue  villages  {khdlsa 
565,  zamindaris  361 )  of  which  88  are  uninhabited  {khdlsa  47, 
zamindaris  41). 


224  DILASrUR.       GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION. 

The  Civil  Court  stafT  of  the  District  consists  of  a  District 
Judge  and  a  Subordinate  Judge  at  headquarters  ;  at  each 
tahslii  there  is  one  munsiffand  a  second  munsifif  at  Bilaspur. 
The  Tahsildars  are  additional  Judges  in  niunsiffs'  courts 
and  the  Assistants  are  Additional  Judges  in  the  Subordinate 
Judge's  court  for  trial  of  civil  cases  between  landlords  and 
tenants  under  the  Tenancy  Act.  There  are  benches  of  Honor- 
ary Magistrates  at  Bilaspur,  Ratanpur  and  Seorlnarayan ; 
but  at  present  the  bench  at  Bilaspur  does  not  sit  from  lack  of 
suitable  nominees.  Besides  these  there  are  seven  Honorary 
Magistrates,  of  whom  four  are  zamlndars.  All  but  two  of  the 
Honorary  Magistrates  exercise  3rd  class  powers.  Two 
exercise  2nd  class  powers.  There  is  an  Honorary  Assistant 
Commissioner,  who  is  also  Additional  Judge  in  the  Subordinate 
Judge's  court,  and  an  Honorary  Assistant  District  Super- 
intendent of  Police  in  the  District.  Recently  a  Deputy  Super- 
intendent of  Police  has  been  attached  to  the  District.  The 
Divisional  Forest  Officer  is  usually  a  member  of  the  Provin- 
cial Service.  He  has  charge  also  of  the  Sonakhan  range, 
which  is  now  in  the  Raipur  District  but  was  before  the 
1st  January  1906  in  Bilaspur.  The  Civil  Surgeon  is  an 
officer  of  the  Indian  Medical  Service.  He  is  also  the 
Superintendent  of  the  Jail.  Tliere  are  two  branches  of  the 
Public  Works  Department,  with  a  Subdivisional  Officer 
in  charge  of  each — one  for  roads  and  buildings  under  the 
Executive  Engineer  of  the  Eastern  Division,  the  other  for 
irrigation  under  the  Executive  Engineer  of  the  Mahanadi 
Division. 

186.  The  Land  Record  staff  con- 
Land  Record  Staff. 

sists  of — 

I  Superintendent,  3  Assistant  Superintendents,  18 
Revenue  Inspectors  and  ^S/  patwaris.  There  are  13  Reve- 
nue Inspectors  and  275  patwaris  in  the  khalsa  portion  of  the 
District  and  5  Revenue  Inspectors  and  J 12  patwaris  in  the 
zamindaris.  Eleven  patwaris  of  tlie  Pandaria  zamlndari  and 
one  of  the  Kanteli  zamlndari  are  under  the  khalsa  Revenue 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  2  25 

Inspector  of  Kunda.  Three  Kanteli  zaraindari  patwaris  are 
under  the  khalsa  Revenue  Inspector  of  Lormi.  Six  patv;aris 
of  the  Champa  zamlndari  are  under  the  hJialsa  Revenue 
Inspector  of  Baraduar.  The  headquarters  of  the  Revenue 
Inspectors  are  f  i)  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil — Kandar,  Bija,  Nar- 
gora,  Masturi,  Pendra  and  Kenda  with  95  kJidlsa  patwari 
circles  and  36  zamlndari  circles  ;  (2)  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil — 
Akaltara,  Dhardehi,  Baraduar,  Jaijaipur,  Chandarpur,  Hasod, 
Chhuri  and  Korba  with  127  patwari  circles  in  kJidlsa  and  41  in 
zamlndaris;  and  (3)  in  the  Mungdl  tahsil — Sargaon,  Kunda, 
Lormi,  Pandaria  with  53  paiwari  circles  in  khalsa  and  35  in 
zamlndfiris.  To  each  Revenue  Inspector  in  the  khalsa  there 
is  an  average  of  22  patwaris  and  in  the  zamlndaris  an  average 
of  18  patwaris.  There  are  3106  surveyed  villages  in  the 
District  for  which  land  records  are  prepared  :  an  average  of 
nearly  7  to  each  patwari  in  the  khalsa  and  nearly  12  in  the 
zamlndaris.  In  the  khalsa  each  patwari's  circle  contains  on 
an  average  4662  acres  included  in  holdings  and  a  total  area 
of  6516  acres  :  in  the  zamlndaris  each  patwari's  circle  on  an 
average  has  a  total  area  of  15,815  acres,  of  which  4864  acres 
are  included  in  holdings.  Patwaris  receive  Rs.  9  monthly,  paid 
direct  from  the  treasury.  All  but  61  get  additional  allowances 
of  R.  I,  Rs.  2  or  Rs.  3  monthly.  Besides,  a  certain  sum  iu 
rewards  for  exceptionally  good  work  is  distributed  yearly.  In 
1908  a  sum  of  Rs.  285  was  so  distributed  amongst  32  patwaris. 
Grain  dues  or  direct  collections  by  patwaris  from  tenants  have 
never  been  customary  in  this  District.  Nor  are  any  patwaris' 
posts  hereditary.  The  patwari  has  alwa3'S  been  directly  a 
Government  servant.  In  this  District  as  in  Chiiattisgarh 
generally  he  formed  no  part  of  the  village  economy,  and  in 
1854  on  Chhattlsgarh  being  taken  over  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment the  necessity  of  filing  village  records  led  to  the  intro- 
duction of  patwaris  into  the  khalsa  portion'.  Thirty  patwaris 
were  originally  appointed,  each  having  about  75  vill;)ges  in 
his  circle.  At  the  first  settlement  in  1868,  the  halkdbandi 
was  revised  and  90    patwaris  were  appointed  for  the  khalsa 

GG 


226  lUI.ASPUR.       crNFUAI.    ADMIN'ISTH  A!  ION. 

and  a  small   supervising  staff,    the  cost  being  defrayed  by  a 

5  per  cent,  cess  on  the  revenue  of  the  village.  The  patwaris 
under  the  new  arrangements  had  an  average  of  25  villages 
each  in  tlieir  circles. 

At  the  re-settlement  the  staff  was  reorganised,  the  num- 
ber of  patwaris  being  largely  increased,  and  much  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  finding  and  training  candidates.  From 
1891  there  were  315  patwaris  with  11  Revenue  Inspectors 
for  the  khalsa  under  the  supervision  of  one  Superintendent 
and  one  Assistant  Superintendent,  the  cost  being  defrayed  by 
a  6  per  cent,  cess  on  revenue  paid  by  malguzars  and  a  rate  of 

6  pies  in  the  rupee  of  rental  paid  by  tenants.  In  the  zamin- 
daris  zamindars  were  called  upon  in  1881  in  accordance 
with  a  condition  of  their  tenure  to  submit  annually  village 
papers  and  they  made  their  own  arrangements  to  do  so.  The 
returns  were  unreliable  and  a  Jialkabandi  was  prepared  at  the 
re-settlement  in  iSpofor  the  zamindaris  also,  78  patwaris 
and  4  Inspectors  being  appointed.  Each  zaniindar  paid 
the  cost  for  his  estate,  only  recouping  himself  by  a  levy 
of  6  pies  per  rupee  of  rental  and  6  per  cent,  of  revenue  from 
inferior  proprietors.  The  staff  was  again  revised  in  1898 
when  one  Inspector  and  30  additional  patwaris  were  appointed 
for  zamindaris.  Additions  were  made  in  1  899  and  in  1902 
to  the  supervising  staff  and  to  the  number  of  patwaris  —  the 
latter  mostly  in  the  zamindaris-  -and  the  pay  was  raised.  There 
were  iurlher  changes  consequent  on  the  redistribution  of 
Districts  in  1905  and  1906,  On  tlie  1st  April  1906  the  pat- 
wari  cess  was  remitted.  In  the  year  1904-05,  that  is, 
before  the  change  in  the  District  area,  the  demand  on 
account  of  the  cess  was  Rs.  59,326.  The  pay  of  patwaris 
was  Rs.  53,672  and  of  the  supervising  staff' Rs.  10,245.  Owing 
to  the  generally  small  size  of  the  fields  in  the  District  the 
patwaris'  work  is  more  than  usually  difficult  and  laborious. 
The  patwaris  are  mostl}'  foreigners,  and  as  the  people  are 
generally  ignorant  possess  even  more  local  influence  than  is 
usual. 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  22/ 

187.  Crime  is  not   heavy  in    the   District  in  proportion 

to  the  population  and  statistics  shew  a 
Crime. 

very  decided  decrease  since  1901    com- 
pared to  the  previous  ten  years.     The  average  annual  number 
of  offences  reported  to  the  police  in  the  years  1891  to  1900  was 
228.,  in  the  subsequent  five  years  1298,  and  11 04  in  the  three 
years  since    the  rediblribution  of   the  District  in    1906.     The 
average     number    of     cases   not    cognisable    by    the    police 
was    624    for  the    ten  years  previous  to  the  reduction  of  area 
of  the  District    in  1906,  and    515    for  the    subsequent    three 
years.     The  bad    famine  years  showed  a  large  number    of 
offences — 2853    in    1900,  3134    in  1896  and  5168  in    1897. 
In    1S96    and    1897    ^^'^  criminal  classes  of  the  District  got 
out  of  hand  for  a  time,  especially  the  Chamars  of  the  Mungell 
tahsil,  who,  ever  ready  on  slight  provocation  to  take  to  crime, 
formed  organised  gangs  for  levy  of  black-mail^  poisoning  and 
stealing    cattle,  conmiitting  dacoities  and    house-breakings. 
The  District  at  one  time  had  a  bad  name  for  cattle  poisoning 
by  Chamars,  but  of  recent  years  matters  have  much  improved 
in  this  respect  and  this  offence  is  not  now  especially  common. 
The  number  of  murders  is  generally  large  in  the  course  of 
a  year,  but  not  proportionately  large  for  the  population   of 
the   Disti-ict.      The  most  general  causes   are  love  affairs  and 
land  disputes.     Riots  are  not  uncommon,  the  summary  proce- 
dure of  'club  law'  to  gain  forcible  possession  of  land   being 
preferred  to  a  tedious   civil  suit.     Police  indifference  in  the 
past    has    to    some  extent     encouraged   them.     Cattle    theft 
is  another   class  of  crime  common  in   the  Distiict,  the   conti- 
guity  of  many  Native  States  and  the  passage  of   numerous 
Banjara  droves  in  the  north  affording  facilities   for  it.     The 
local  criminal  castes  are  Chamars,  mostly  to  the  west,  and 
Gandas,  mostly  to  the  east  of  the  District  in  the  Chandarpur 
tract.     Failure  of  crops  easily  leads  to  organised  crime   by 
either  class.     Good  railway  communication  brings  not  infre- 
quent visits  of  foreign   professional    criminals        Tlie    high 
road    to  Puri    lies    through    the    District    and    affords    such 


228  niLASPL'R.       GT.SV.RAl.    ADMINISTRATION. 

gentry  an  excellent  disguise  and  excuse  for  wandering.  Gangs 
of  '  Jagannathis '  outside  railway  limits  usually  receive  close 
attention  from  the  local  police.  In  years  of  scarcity,  hunger 
occasionally  drives  the  Korwa.s-  the  wild  hillmcn  of  Surguja 
and  Udaipur  States  on  the  north-west — across  the  border  to 
commit  grain  thefts.  The  construction  of  railways  lias  opened 
up  the  District  and  brought  in  a  crowd  of  foreigners,  mostly 
for  legitimate  trade.  But  many  an  up-country  man,  who 
lives  by  his  wits,  has  found  the  District  a  happy'  hunting 
ground.  Beyond  occasionally  lending  a  hand  in  a  riot  he 
usually  is  careful  to  keep  clear  of  the  police.  But  short  of 
actual  crime,  there  is  no  sort  of  rascality  for  which  he  is  not 
ready.  The  '  pardeshi '  is  much  feared  by  the  indigenous 
people  of  the  District,  who  are  for  the  most  part  both  timid 
and  ignorant. 

1 88.   Bilaspur  is  not    a  litigious  District.       At    present 
there  is  one  civil  suit  instituted   in    the 

Civil    litigation.  .         . 

year  tor  every  2CO  of  the  population. 
In  the  Central  Provinces  there  are  only  three  Districts  with 
a  smaller  proportion  than  this  and  of  these  two  Districts  are  in 
the  ChhattJsgarh  Division,  Thenumberof  suits  instituted  used 
to  be  very  much  greater — the  highest  figure  being  7951  in 
the  year  1895.  But  there  was  a  marked  fall  after  1898  due 
to  the  enactment  in  that  year  of  the  Central  Provinces  Tenancy 
Act,  which  curtailed  considerably  the  powers  of  transfer 
of  land.  Since  1898  suits  have  increased  again  very  largely 
and  in  the  3'ear  1908  4871  suits  were  instituted  with  a 
total'  value  of  Rs.  5,09,940  Most  of  this  liiigaiion  is  petty. 
As  many  as  1063  suits  were  for  Rs.  10  and  under,  85  per 
cent,  of  the  suits  were  for  Rs.  100  and  less,  11  per  cent,  for 
over  Rs.  100  and  less  than  Rs.  500  and  only  4  per  cent,  for 
over  Rs.  500.  Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  suits  are  for  money 
or  movable  property,  the  balance  being  made  up  of  suits  for 
rent,  on  mortgages,  and  lor  immovable  property.  Despite  the 
large  population  of  the  District,  hardly  any  District  shows 
fewer  suits    for    rent,  only    216   being  filed    in  190S.     The 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION,  229 

settlement  is  of  long  standing  and  rents  are  very  low  and 
easily  collected.  Suits  for  immovable  property  have  increased 
largely  in  the  last  four  years,  possibly  in  view  of  the  impending 
revision  of  settlement.  Mortgage  suits  have  gradually 
decreabed  in  number  since  the  passing  of  the  Tenancy  Act  of 
1898.  Of  every  lOO  suits  brouglit,  only  about  23  are 
contested,  a  smaller  proportion  than  in  most  Districts  of  the 
Province.  The  Scheduled  Districts'  Act  (Act  XIV  of  1874) 
applies  to  nine  zamlndaris  in  this  District,  viz.,  Pandaria, 
Pendra,  Matin,  Uprora,  Kenda,  Lapha,  Chhuri,  Korba  and 
Ciiampa.  But  all  laws  are  in  force  there  as  in  the  khdlsa,  an 
exception  being  that  immovable  property  cannot  be  sold  in 
execution  of  a  decree. 

189.  The     Deputy     Commissioner     has     been    District 
Registrar  since  the  end  of   1904;  and 

Registration. 

since  then  tne  headquarters  Sub-regis- 
trar has  been  empowered  to  register  documents  for  the  District 
Registrar  and  to  do  the  routine  work  of  the  District  Regis- 
trar's office.  There  are  three  sub-registrars  under  the  District 
Registrar  with  offices  at  Bilaspur,  Mungell  and  Janjgir.  They 
receive  a  fixed  salary  and  a  commission  of  3  annas  on  each 
document  registered.  The  number  of  documents  registered  in 
1890-91  was  905.  There  was  a  large  increase  in  the  years 
1894-95  to  1898-99,  the  largest  number  registered  being  1923 
in  1897-98.  The  new  Central  Provinces  Tenancy  Act  of  189S 
caused  a  large  decrease — the  number  of  documents  registered 
in  1899-1900  being  647.  The  average  number  registered 
yearly  since  is  742  and  in  1908  801  documents  were  regis- 
tered. Of  these,  536  documents  concerned  immovable  property 
of  which  the  registration  of  5 1 2  was  compulsory  by  law  and  of 
24  optional.  Two  hundred  and  fifty-five  documents  had  to  do 
with  movable  property  and  their  registration  was  optional. 
Ten  documents  were  wills  and  their  registration  was  optional. 
The  receipts  from  registration  vary  with  the  number  of  docu- 
ments registered  and  the  amount. of  their  consideration  money. 
In  1890-91  receipts  were  Rs.  3125.     .Since  then   the  greatest 


230  Bll.ASIMIK.       (iKNF.KAI.    ADMI  MSTI{ATION. 

amount  in  one  year  lias  been  Rs.  7134  in  1897-98,  and  the 
least  Rs.  2518  in  1899-1900.  Since  1 899-1 900  the  average 
yearly  receipts  have  been  Rs.    36.^0.      In     1908    tlie  receipts 

^v^rc  Rs.  4467. 

190.  The  following  statement  shows  the  realisation   of 
revenue    in     the    District    under     the 

Statistics  of  revcniir.  ..,,,/-  ,  j 

principal  heads  of  receipt,  at  the  end 
of  the  last  three  decades  and  during  the  years  1904-05  to 
1907-08 : — 


Year. 

i  . 

-3  C 

a   u 
«  > 
h4 

a. 
E 

in 

m 
0 
>< 

11 
0 

to  „" 

En  0 

i 
E 
0  >^ 

0  a 
c  — 

Other  le- 
ceipts. 

0 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

1880-81 

2,80,545 

25,00,' 

75,614 

17.1S4 

952 

3,y9..3^^3 

1890-91 

S.70,39:- 

49,35- 

1,08,717 

26,485 

3125 

12,240 

7,70,312 

J  900-0 1 

5.75.721 

52.67? 

93,049 

20,045 

2941 

'0,373 

12,736 

7,67,538 

1904-05 

5-90,13.- 

51,12: 

1,34,289 

2-1,72: 

2915 

7472 

•3,655^ 

8,24,316 

1905-C6 

3,02,91  i 

67,65^ 

1,59,962 

24818 

3648 

7908 

18,223 

5,85,<27 

1906-07 

5. '1.75.- 

62,65^ 

1,58,382 

35,«i4 

3503 

8574 

29,835 

8,10,519 

1907-08 

2,97,Ci65 

/2.82:- 

1,58,191 

35,336 

S75 

9281 

21,324 

5,98,495 

Excise. 


In  1907-08  the  treasury  transactions  were — 

Rs. 
Total  receipts  of  all  kinds      ...   20,49.400 
Total  charges  of  all  kinds       ...   20,38.700 
191.  The  excise  income   is  derived  from  license  fees  for 
sale   of  foreign    liquor,  country  spirit, 
ganj'a  and  opium,  and  from   the   duty 
on  mahua  used  at   the  sadar  distillery  and  on  drugs   sold  to 
licensed  vendors.     Formerl}-   all    zamindars  had   the  control 
of  the  excise   monopoly  in   their  estates.     The  rights  of  the 
Kanteli    zamlndari    were    resumed    at     the    first  settlement 
(1868).     Those    of   Champa    were    resumed  at  the    second 
settlement  in  1890 — compensation   in  tlic  form  of  a  speciall}' 
low  asscsbment    of  his  land  revenue    beins;  granted   to   the 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  23  I 

zamindar.  These  two  zamindaris  are  open  tracts  and  lie 
amongst  khdlsa  territory,  and  it  was  in  the  interest  of  the 
khdlsa  excise  administration  that  their  monopolies  were 
resumed  first.  The  monopolies  of  the  other  zamindaris 
were  continued  at  the  settlement  of  1890  and  the  zamlndars 
were  assessed  in  most  cases  at  about  50  per  cent,  of  their 
income  from  this  source.  The  assessment  was  for  three  years 
only.  In  1894  these  monopolies  also  were  resumed  and 
the  zamindars  were  granted  compensation  amounting  to 
eight  times  the  average  net  profits  of  the  previous  three  years. 
All  the  zamindars  accepted  the  compensation  in  1894,  except 
the  zamindar  of  Korba,  who  did  not  agree  till  1907.  To  soften 
the  blow  to  their  dignity  caused  by  the  loss  of  these  privileges 
each  zamindar  who  accepted  the  compensation  in  1894 
was  granted  the  farm  of  the  excise  monopoly  in  his 
estate  for  the  remaining  term  of  the  settlement  at  an 
annual  fee  of  one-tenth  the  amount  of  compensation 
granted  to  him.  Pattds  setting  forth  the  conditions 
were  granted  to  each  zamindar  in  1894  lor  liquor  and  in 
1896  for  opium  and  gcinja.  The  zamindars  sublet  their 
stills  and  shops  ;  the  number  of  such  stills  and  shops  is  pres- 
cribed and  they  are  subject  to  all  rules  as  in  khdlsa  and  to 
supervision.  Only  Government  opium  and  gdnja  may  be 
sold  The  farm  has  been  extended  in  1902  with  the  exten- 
sion of  the  term  of  the  present  settlement.  As  the  zamindar 
of  Korba 'refused  to  accept  compensation  in  1894,  no  farm 
was  granted  and  the  excise  in  Korba  zamindari  was  taken  and 
has  remained  under  direct  management.  The  settlement  of 
the  zamindaris  is  now  under  revision  but  the  future  excise 
management  has  not  }'et  been  decided.  The  zamindars  of 
Korba  and  Pandaria  have  recently  sued  Government  for 
restoration  of  their  excise  rights. 

192.  Receipts  from  fureign  liquor  are  small,  there  being 

now  only  one  shop  in  the  town  of  Bilas- 

Foreign  and  country      p^i-  .^d  two  public  houses  or  refresh- 

liquor.  ^  ^ 

ment    rooms    at    two   stations    on    the 


232  HILASPUU.       OENFRAI.    AI>MINISTRATION. 

railway.  The  license  fees  are  fixed  by  Goveinitient  and  the 
demand  in  190S-09  was  Rs.  500.  For  manufacture  and  sale 
of  country  spirits  the  whole  District  except  462  square  miles 
was  up  to  31st  March  1908  under  the  outstill  system.  At 
Bilfispur  there  has  been  since  1897  a  sadar  distillery  serving 
an  area  round  Bilaspur  town  of  462  square  miles  In  the  year 
1904  05  before  the  redistribution  of  the  Districts  of  the 
Chhattisgarh  Division  there  were  one  sadar  distillery  and  13 
subordinate  shops,  and  155  outstills  serving  212  shops,  all 
under  direct  management.  In  the  zamindaris  under  farm 
leased  to  zamindars  there  were  102  outstills  serving  (02  shops. 
In  1905-06  on  the  redistribution  of  the  District,  22  outstills  of 
the  khalsa  serving  41  shops  were  transferred  from  Sambalpur 
District  and  26  /^//^/j-fl  outstills  serving  40  shops  and  lOzamin- 
dari  outstills  serving  TO  shops  were  transferred  to  the  Drug  and 
Raipur  Districts.  Since  then  up  to  31st  March  1909  eleven 
stills  and  30  shops  all  in  the  khalsa  have  been  abolished, 
the  total  in  1908-09  being  one  sadar  distillery  serving  1 1  shops 
and  142  outstills  serving  182  shops  under  direct  management 
and  under  farm  leased  to  zamindars  92  outstills  serving 
92  shops.  From  the  ist  April  1909  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  ultimate  introduction  of  the  contract  supply  system  the 
sadar  distillery  area  has  been  extended  to  1140  square 
miles,  several  outstills  in  the  khalsa  have  been  amalgamated 
fo  reduce  competition  in  sales  of  liquors  between  adjacent 
lessees  and  the  number  of  shops  has  been  still  further 
reduced.  The  number  of  stills  and  shops  is  now  one  sadar 
distillery  with  43  shops,  70  outstills  serving  117  shops,  all 
under  direct  management  and  92  outstills  and  92  shops  in 
farmed  zamindaris.  Until  recently  temporary  lic'enses  were 
granted  to  licensees  for  sale  in  bazars  in  their  circles.  This 
custom  has  been  discontinued  and  now  temporary  licenses 
for  liquor,  opium  and  ganja  are  only  granted  for  tlie  fair  at 
Pithampur,  which  lasts  a  week. 

In  the   sadar  distillery  usually  liquor  is  distilled  of  three 
strengths,  about  25-,  50'  and  60'  under  proof  called  respec- 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  2^^ 

lively  chaubdra^  dobdra  and  rdsi^  the  first  two  being  principally 
for  town  consumption ;  the  prices  usually  charged  for  a  bottle 
are  14  annas,  10  annas  and  3  annas  respectively.  In  the 
outstills  liquor  is  usually  distilled  of  two  strengths,  phuli  or 
dobdra  abcut  35^ — 40 '  and  rdsi  about  60' — 65°  under  proof, 
the  prices  for  a  bottle  varying  from  annas  4  to  annas  6  {oi- phuli 
and  about  annas  3  for  rdsi.  All  liquor  distilled  under  license 
is  distilled  from  mahua  flowers.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
District,  as  in  man}'  parts  of  Bengal,  a  rice  beer  is  made  for 
private  consumption  by  a  few  castes.  This  is  ca\\e.dpachwai 
or  kusnd.  The  beer  is  usually  consumed  at  festivals,  but  the 
practice  does  not  seem  to  be  extending.  The  article  has  been 
exempted  from  the  provisions  of  the  Excise  Act. 

In  the  portion  of  the  District  where  excise  is  directly 
administered  there  was  in  1908-09  an  average  of  one  liquor 
shop  for  3875  persons  and  for  22-5  square  miles.  In  the  farmed 
zamlndaris  the  average  was  one  liquor  shop  for  183S  persons 
and  3 5 "3  square  miles.  From  the  sadar  distillery  the  average 
receipts  from  hcense  fees  for  the  five  years  1904-05  to  1908-09 
were  Rs.  11,600  and  from  duty  at  H  annas  per  seer  of 
mahua  Rs.  3968.  Owing  to  more  efficient  management  and 
closer  supervision  and  also  increased  town  population  and 
higher  wages  the  receipts  have  increased  continuously  during 
this  period.  In  1908-09  the  receipts  from  license  fees  were 
Rs.  15,504  and  from  duty  Rs.  4727.  In  that  year  11,791 
gallons  of  spirit  were  manufactured  equal  to  5^13  pi'oof 
gallons,  8-9  seers  of  mahua  on  an  average  being  required 
for  the  manufacture  of  each  proof  gallon.  About  two-thirds 
of  the  spirit  is  sold  in  the  town  shops.  The  total  receipts 
from  country  spirit  in  the  khdlsa  portion  of  the  District 
increased  rapidly  from  Rs.  21,637  in  1891-92  to  Rs.  45,120 
in  1895-96.  The  average  yearly  receipts  of  the  next  five  years 
to  the  year  1900-01  were  Rs.  22,079  only,  the  decrease  being 
in  outstill  receipts  which  vary  readily  with  good  or  bad 
seasons,  and  these  five  years  included  two  very  bad  famines. 
The  receipts  rose  continuously  to  Rs.  46,757  in  1905-06,  wiieii 

HH 


234  nii.AsriiR.     ni-.NiRAi.  administration. 

the  area  of  the  District  tvas  reduced.    Since  tlien  llie  increase 
has  continued  and  in  1908-09  the  receipts  were  Rs.  57,79^' 
193.  In  1904-05   there  were  69   permanent  opium  shops 
in  the  klialsa  portion  of  tlie  District,  a 

*^P'"'"-  .  ,-111  •  1  r  1 

number  vvhicli  had  contniued  tor  several 
years  previously.  There  was  a  reduction  of  8  on  the  redis- 
tribution of  the  District  in  the  following  year  and  lO  others 
have  been  abolished  since.  There  are  now  (1909)  51  shops 
in  the  /-//(•F/j-rt  and  17  in  tb.c  farmed  zamlndaris  or  an  average 
of  one  opium  shop  in  the  kJidha  for  14,383  people  and  83*6 
square  miles,  and  in  zaniindaris  one  for  an  average  of  9947 
people  and  151  square  miles.  Opium  is  usually  sold  in  the 
town  at  the  rate  of  about  10  annas  per  tola,  weight  and 
outside  the  town  at  8  annas.  The  receipts  from  license 
fees  for  sale  of  opium  vary  with  the  prosperity  of  the  Dis- 
trict as  do  the  receipts  from  country  liquor  though  not  quite 
to  the  same  extent.  From  1891-92  to  1895-96  there  was 
a  continuous  increase  from  Rs.  15,313  to  Rs.  25,855  which 
was  the  highest  until  last  year  ( 1 908-09).  The  next  six  years 
saw  a  continuous  decline  to  Rs.  12,253  ^^^  then  a  rapid 
recovery  to  Rs.  2 1,850  in  1905-06  In  the  three  subsequent 
years  despite  the  reduction  of  the  area  of  the  District  and  the 
raising  of  the  duty  from  Rs.  22  to  Rs.  23-8-0  per  seer  the 
average  receipts  were  Rs.  18,980,  and  in  1908-09  they 
reached  Rs.  26,286  and  the  demand  for  1909-10  has 
risen  to  Rs.  28,575.  The  weight  of  opium  actually  con- 
sumed in  the  District  in  1908-09  was  rather  over  58  maunds 
and  the  duty  levied  on  it  was  Rs.  54,835,  the  total  taxation 
per  seer  being  nearly  Rs.  36.  In  1901-02  the  area  of  the 
District  being  then  9  per  cent,  larger  than  now  the  amount 
consumed  was  39^  maunds  and  in  1891-92  47  maunds.  Fifteen 
mat  nds  of  opium  were  issued  during  1908-09  to  Feudatory 
Sta.es  from  the  Bilaspur  treasury  and  Rs.  12,229  realised. 
194.  In  1904-05  there  w-ere  64  ganja  shops  in  the 
kJialsa   portion  of  the  District  and  the 

Ciwja  and  bhang.  ,         ,      ,  •  ,  r 

same  number  had  coniniued  lor  several 


GENER.'M,    ADMIXISTRATION.  235 

years  previously.  By  the  reduction  of  the  District  area 
7  were  transferred  to  other  Districts  and  subsequently  the 
number  was  reduced  to  48  in  1908-09,  that  is,  one  shop  on 
an  average  for  ^4,66i,  people  and  86'T,  square  miles.  In  the 
farmed  zamindaris  there  are  20  shops,  an  average  of  one  for 
8455  people  and  162  square  miles.  Ganja  is  usually  sold 
at  about  4  annas  per  tola  in  the  town  and  3  annas  outside 
the  town  of  Bilaspur.  The  receipts  from  license  fees  for 
sale  o{ gaiija\\'dL\^  varied  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  opium, 
but  the  taxation  has  been  raised  from  Rs.  2  to  Rs.  3  per 
seer  in  1896-97  and  from  Rs  3  to  Rs.  4  per  seer  in  1901-02 
and  from  Rs.  4  to  Rs.  5  in  1906-07.  The  consumption  of 
ganja  fluctuates  sharply  with  the  prosperity  of  the  people 
and  the  price  at  which  it  is  sold,  the  drug  being  giv^en  up 
b}'  consumers  with  comparative  ease.  The  largest  consump- 
tion in  the  District  was  148  maunds  in  1894-95  and  the 
revenue  raised  on  it  was  Rs.  27,205  ;  the  lowest  consump- 
tion was  nearly  44  maunds  in  1902-03  and  the  revenue 
on  it  was  Rs.  11,075.  't'l  1908-09  the  consumption  of 
the  District  was  j^  maunds  and  the  revenue  was 
Rs.  25,718. 

There  are  three  licensed  vendors  of  M (7 /;^'-.  In  1908-09 
they  paid  Rs.  427  duty  and  Rs.  215  license  fees  and  the 
consumption  was  nearly  5^  maunds. 

The  net  revenue  per  1 0,000  of  the  District  population 
was  Rs.  1739  from  excise  in  1908-09.  For  the  Province  the 
revenue  per  10,000  in  1907-08  was  Rs.  4381. 

The  excise  staff  was  increased  in  1906-07  and  there  are 
now  nine  Sub-Inspectors  in  the  District :  one  of  them  is  in 
subordinate  cliarge  of  the  District  directly  under  the  Deputy 
Commissioner. 

•  The  boundary  of  the  District  for  more  than  half  its 
length  adjoins  Native  States.  Ganja  smuggling  from  some 
of.them  was  common  until  recentl}',  when  ganja  cultivation 
there  was  prohibited  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  District 
revenue. 


236  BII.ASPUR.       GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION. 

J95.  'riicie  arc  49  unofficial  licensed  vendors  of  stamps-, 
including  schoolmasters,     shopkeepers 
^  '""'"'■  and    one  postmaster  ;   at    Bilaspur  the 

vendor  at  the  court  building  makes  a  living  out  of  the  sale  of 
stamps  alone.  Tlic  discount  paid  to  the  licensees  in  1908- 
09  was  Rs  1549.  The  receipts  in  1891-92  were  from 
sale  of  document  stamps  Rs.  10,680  and  of  court  fee  stamps 
Rs.  41,729.  These  were  rather  higher  than  in  the  preceding 
years  and  continued  to  increase  until  1895-96  when  the 
receipts  from  document  stamps  were  Rs.  19,843  and  from 
court  fee  stamps  Rs.  50,767.  In  1896-97  receipts  from 
document  stamps  rose  sharply  to  Rs.  22,666,  showing  the 
effects  of  the  famine  of  that  year  in  making  people  borrow. 
Then  followed  a  gradual  decrease  during  the  lean  years 
\vhen  credit  was  difficult  to  get.  The  year  of  lowest  sales  was 
1 899- 1 900  when  Rs.  12,135  were  realised.  Court  fee  stamp 
sales  were  not  affected  to  the  same  extent  and  fluctuated 
sharply,  apparently  as  people  saw  an  opportunity  of  realising 
their  debts.  In  the  last  three  years  the  sales  have  more  than 
recovered  despite  the  reduced  area  of  the  District.  In  1907- 
08  the  sales  of  document  stamps  brought  in  Rs.  20,093 
and  of  court  fee  stamps  Rs.  52,730  In  1908-09  receipts  fiom 
sale  of  document  stamps  were  Rs  26,464  and  of  court  fee 
stamps  Rs.  54,616. 

196.  There  is  only  one  Municipality  in  the  District,  that 
of  Bilaspur.   It  was  constituted  in  i'66y. 

Municipalities. 

It  contains  parts  of  several  villages, 
Lingia,  Chatidih,  Sarkanda,  Kudhurdand  and  land  declared  at 
the  1868  settlement  to  be  nazfil.  Tliis  land  comprising  the 
present  niu/ial/ds  of  Chata,  Jarhabliata,  Masanganj,  Kbapar- 
ganj,  Gondpara,  Purani  Lines  together  with  Bilaspur  village 
cover  nearly  the  whole  area  within  the  Municipality.  The 
population  was  16,376  in  1901  and  had  increased  from 
11,122  in  1S91.  The  town  is  growing.  The  railway 
community  numbering  some  2500  is  outside  the  municipal 
limits  and  manages  its  own  affairs.     There  are  three  wards — 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  237 

old  Bilaspur  electing  three  members,  Gol  Bazar  electing  three 
members  and  Chata  electing  two  members.  Besides  tlie  eight 
elected  members,  there  are  four  members  of  the  Committee 
nominated  by  Government.  The  Secretary  is  a  paid  servant 
of  the  Committee,  and  the  President  is  sometimes  an  official 
and  sometimes  a  non-official.  The  average  receipts  for  the  ten 
years  1^91-92  to  1900-01  were  Rs.  32,913  and  for  the  next 
five  years  Rs.  35,433.  In  the  last  four  years  there  has  been 
a  considerable  increase  of  income  and  in  1908-09  the 
receipts  were  Rs.  47,498.  The  chief  sources  of  municipal 
income  are  octroi  in  1908-09  Rs.  26,628  net  (after 
payment  of  refunds  Rs.  9962),  conservancy  house  tax 
Rs.  4275,  municipal  pounds  Rs.  1371,  school  fees  (nearly 
all  from  secondary  schools)  Rs.  2548,  market  rents 
Rs.  3081,  fees  on  cattle  registration  Rs.  3071,  contribution 
from  Government  Rs.  2000,  and  under  all  these  heads  except 
pounds  there  has  been  a  considerable  increase  of  recent  years. 
The  octroi  schedule  of  rates  was  revised  and  the  rates 
increased  in  1904-05.  The  conservancy  house  tax  was 
imposed  in  1907-08  in  place  of  the  old  poll  tax  to  defray 
the  cost  of  private  house  conservancy.  A  High  School  was 
started  in  1904- 1905  and  an  annual  Government  grant  of 
Rs.  2000  towards  it  has  been  paid  since.  The  High  School 
building  was  then  constructed  at  a  cost  of  over  Rs.  6000, 
the  greater  part  of  which  was  subscribed  privately,  the 
Government  giving  a  grant  of  Rs.  lOOO.  In  1908-09  the 
income  per  head  of  the  census  population  was  Rs.  2-14-5 
and  the  incidence  of  taxation  was  R.  1-14-2.  These  figures 
are  as  high  as  those  of  any  municipality  which  has  no 
drainage  or  water-works.  Tlie  municipal  expenditure 
averaged  for  the  decade  1891-9-2  to  1900-01  Rs.  32,915 
and  for  the  next  five  years  Rs.  35,540.  In  1908-09  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  49,086.  The  principal  items  of 
expenditure  were — Geneial  office  establishment  Rs.  2396, 
collection  of  taxes  Rs.  3709,  ligliting  Rs.  1367,  conservancy 
Rs.  11,018,  medical  Rs.  4613,  public  garden  Rs.  2095,  road 


238  niI,ASPUR.       flENFRAI.    ADMINISTRATION. 

Rs.  5537  and  education  Rs.  12,706  (of  which  Rs.  7966  is 
spent  on  secondary  education).  The  Municipality  contributes 
Rs.  500  to  tlic  cost  of  the  veterinary  dispensary.  The 
balance  of  the  Municipal  Fund  on  the  ist  April  1909  was 
Rs.  18,502.  Tiie  High  School  and  the  public  gardens  are 
the  luxuries  of  the  Municipality.  The  expenditure  has 
increased  largely  of  recent  years  under  most  other  heads,  the 
largest  increases  being  under  'conservancy.'  '  roads '  and 
'  medical.'  Tlie  efficiency  of  the  conservancy  arrangements 
still  leaves  something  to  be  desired.  Plague  preventive 
measures  for  the  last  two  years  have  been  costly.  The  town 
has  been  surveyed  for  diainage  recently,  but  nothing  has 
been  decided  yet  There  are  no  water-works,  but  private 
wells  are  numerous,  as  the  water  level  is  close  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  Municipality  lias  incurred  no  loan.  A 
Town  Hall  was  built  in  1895  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  12,376.  The 
Municipality  and  District  Council  shared  the  cost  and  both 
occupy  the  building. 

197.  The   District  Council   was  constituted  on    the   ist 
February  1885  under  the  Central  Pro-. 

District  Council.  .  t  ,       r-   ^r  r^ 

vinces  Local  belf-Government  Act 
(Act  I  of  18S3).  It  consists  of  17  members  elected  by  the 
Local  Boards  and  7  members  nominated  by  Government. 
The  Secretary  is  usually  an  official.  Subordinate  to  it  there 
arc  four  Local  Boards — Mungeli  with  control  over  the 
Mungell  tahsll,  Janjgir  with  control  over  the  khaha  portion 
of  the  Janjgir  tahsTl,  Bilaspur  with  control  over  the  khaha 
portion  of  the  Bilaspur  tahsTi,  and  the  Zamlndari  Local  Board 
with  control  over  ihe  eight  northern  zamlndaris  lying  in  the 
Bilaspur  and  Janjgir  talisTls. 

The  Mungell  Local  Board  consists  of  20  elected  members 
and  5  members  nominated  b}'  the  Government. 

The  Janjgir  Local  Board  consists  of  21  elected  members 
with  5  members  nominated  by  the  Government. 

The  Bilaspur  Local  Board  consists  of  19  elected  mem- 
bers with  5  members  nominated  by  the  Government. 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  239 

In  each  the  Tahslldar  is  usually  the  President  and  the 
Naib-tahslldar  the  Secretary. 

The  Zamindari  Local  Board  consists  of  8  members— one 
representative  of  each  of  the  component   zamlndaris   nomi- 
nated   by     the     Deputy     Commissioner    with    the     Deputy 
Commissioner  as  President  and  the  Tahslldar,  Bilaspur,  as 
Secretary.     For  the  last  ten  years  (1900  — 1909)  the  average 
annual   receipts  of  the   District   Fund  have  been  Rs.  86,628 
and  the  expenditure   Rs.  86,006.     The  receipts  for  1908-09 
were    Rs.    1,20,728     including     Rs.    18,493     advances    and 
deposits,     and     tlie    expenditure    Rs.     1,24,331      including 
Rs.    15,702    advances    and    deposits,  and  the  balance  on  the 
31st  March  1909  was  Rs.  22,105. 

The  principal  items  of  receipts  in  1908-09  were — 

Rs. 
Rates  and  Cesses  ...  ...      25,890 

Pounds  ...  ...  ...      24,389 

Contribution   for  Education  from  Provin- 
cial Funds     ...  ...  ...      27,000 

Cattle  Registration  Fees       ...  ...         71 18 

Ferries  ...  ...  ...  3480 

Contribution   from   Provincial    Funds  for 

Civil  Works  ...  ...  ...      12,000 

The  principal  items  of  expenditure  were — 
General  Administration         ...  ....         3883 

Pounds  ...  ...  ...         9165 

Education  ...  ...  ...      43,441 

(of  which  Rs.  33,910  were  spent  directly 
on  primary  education). 

Contribution  to  Dispensaries  ...         71 19 

Veterinary  Dispensary         ...  ...         2213 

Construction  of  pounds         ...  ...         7954 

,,         of  schools         ...  ...       12,1 12 

,,         and  repairs  of  wells  ...         2307 

Roads  ...  ...  ...      12,862 

Works  Establishment  ...  .,,  3059 


240  nil.ASPUR.       GKNl.KAL    ADMIMSTKATION. 

The  income  of  tlie  Council  has  increased  considerably  in 
the  last  four  years  owing  to  the  increased  contiibution  from 
Government  and  to  the  great  expansion  of  the  receipts  from 
Cattle  pounds  and  registration  of  cattle.  These  are  the  only 
sources  of  income  at  present  which  the  Council  can  control 
directly,  the  others  being  mostly  fixed  or  not  liable  to  much 
variation.  Formerly  the  Council  paid  a  contribution  to  Provin- 
cial revenues  of  Rs.  1 1,945  for  the  upkeep  of  District  roads 
maintained  by  the  Public  Worlds  Department.  From  the  1st 
April  1908  this  was  remitted:  the  accounts  were  thus  much 
simplified  and  the  Council's  income  still  further  increased. 
The  Provincial  grant  has  been  fixed  at  Rs.  39,000  for  three 
years  from  the  ist  April  1908.  The  Council  has  been  able^ 
from  the  generous  grant  from  Provincial  revenues  of  recent 
years,  to  increase  the  number  of  its  schools,  raise  the  pay  of 
the  schoolmasters,  build  a  large  number  of  new  schools, 
expand  its  veterinary  work,  increase  its  works  establishment, 
do  something  to  keep  its  roads  in  order,  and  make  some  efforts 
to  provide  them  with  roadside  avenues.  From  the  1st  April 
1908  greater  responsibility  was  given  to  the  Local  Boards, 
that  is,  greater  powers  of  control  of  expenditure  in  all 
branches  except  veterinary  and  education  were  delegated  to 
them.  Control  of  veterinary  and  education  affairs  still  remains 
with  the  Council.  Each  Local  Board  is  granted  an  allot- 
ment yearly,  and  within  that  allotment  the  Local  Board  is 
authorised  to  incur  expenditure. 
Allotments  in  1908-09  were — 

Rs. 

Bilaspur  ...  ...      22.832 

Janjgir  ...  ...      19.002 

Mungell  ...  ...      15,874 

The  small  sun>s.  spent  by  the  Zamlndari  Local  Board  are 
included  in  the  Bilaspur  allotment,  as  it  has  not  yet  been 
found  practicable  to  grant  a  separate  allotment  and  a  separate 

slatf. 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION,  24 1 

The  average  attendance  at  meetings  is  poor,  and  in  a 
backward  District  such  as  this,  Httle  progress  can  be  made 
without  official  stimulus. 

198.  Before  1905  the  old  Act  was  in  force  in  two  villages 

only,  Janjgir  and  Ratanpur.     The  new 

Village  Sanitation. 

Village  Sanitation  Act  has  been  put  in 
force  in  seven  villages  : — 

Janjgir  (population  2257),  Ratanpur  (5479),  Pendra 
(2457),  Gaurela  (1704),  Takhatpur  (2616),  Mungeli  (5907), 
Champa  (4315),  and  a  proposal  to  introduce  the  Act  into 
Pandaria  is  now  being  considered.  In  Gaurela  funds  are 
raised  by  license  fees  levied  from  brokers  and  a  tax  on  goods 
brought  into  the  village ;  in  tlie  other  villages,  by  a  tax  on 
incomes,  and  two  villages,  Mungeli  and  Takhatpur,  have 
an  income  also  from  cattle  registration  at  their  bazars. 
In  1907-08  the  income  of  the  sanitation  funds  varied  from 
Rs,  354  in  Gaurela  to  Rs.  1269  in  Mungeli,  and  the  expendi- 
ture varied  from  Rs.  308  in  Janjgir  to  Rs.  892  in  Mungeli. 
The  greater  part  of  the  expenditure  is  spent  on  conservancy 
establishment,  but  considerable  sums  are  also  spent  at  times 
on  wells  and  village  roads.  In  two  other  villages,  Baloda, 
population  2603,  and  Chandarpur,  population  1758,  a  conser- 
vancy establishment  has  been  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the 
residents  in  accordance  with  the  rules  framed  under  section 
141  of  the  Land-Revenue  Act.  In  1907-08  the  expenditure 
in  Baloda  was  Rs.  347  and  in  Chandarpur  Rs.  132. 

199.  Since   the   year  1890-91    54  new  wells  have  been 

constructed   at   a  cost  to   the  District 

District  Sanitary  Boird.  ,-     t-.  ^ 

Council  of  Rs.  14,910  and  115  wells 
liave  been  repaired  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  6122.  For  the  con- 
struction of  new  wells  the  villages  formerly  gave  labour  or 
materials,  but  this  procedure  produced  so  many  difficulties  in 
accounts  and  so  much  delay  in  the  work  that  wells  are  now 
only  constructed  in  villages  which  subscribe  half  the  cost 
beforehand  in  cash.  In  1908-09  the  Government  built  two 
new  wells  in  two  of  its  ryotwari  villages. 

II 


242  BILASPUR.      GENERAL   ADMINISTRATION. 

200.  There  is  a  Subdivisional  Officer  for  roads  and  build- 
ings under  the  Executive  Engineer  of  the 

Public  Works.  ,,  ^.    .    .  r^    .  ,,-1       n-i- 

Eastern  Division  at  Raipur.  The  Bilas- 
pur  Subdivision  corresponds  with  the  old  civil  District  of 
Bilaspur  and  consequently  includes  areas  which  now  fall  in 
the  Raipur  and  Drug  Districts.  The  value  of  all  the  Provin- 
cial buildings  on  the  Public  Works  Department  books  in  1908 
was  Rs.  6,35,686,  and  only  Rs.  5329  is  spent  annually  in 
repairs.  Of  the  bungalows  occupied  by  gazetted  officers,  two 
are  Government  buildings  and  intended  for  the  use  of  the 
Deputy  Commissioner  and  the  District  Superintendent  of 
Police.  Of  the  present  Government  buildings  the  jail  (1873) 
and  District  court  (1874)  are  the  oldest  according  to  the 
records  and  local  tradition.  It  is  said  that  both  were  built 
on  the  sites  of  temporary  structures.  They  have  both  been 
added  to  considerably  since.  The  jail  has  cost  Rs.  99,381, 
and  the  District  court  Rs.  1,03,673.  A  new  civil  court— a 
conmiodious  building— was  completed  in  1908  at  a  cost  of 
Rs.  64,314.  There  is  a  small  meteorological  observatory 
building  at  the  Pendra  Road  railway  station.  Otherwise,  the 
Government  buildings  of  the  District  are  such  as  are  usually 
found  in  inofnssil  Districts.  I'he  only  Imperial  Public  Works 
Department  building  is  the  Bilaspur  Post  Office,  built  at  a 
cost  of  Rs.  12,994.  The  principal  buildings,  other  than 
Government  property,  arc  the  English  Church,  American 
Mission  Church,  Town  Hall,  Main  Dispensary,  American 
Mission  Hospital,  High  School,  and  Railway  Institute.  These 
are  all  in  Bilaspur. 

In  the  District  there  are  222  miles  of  metalled  or  surfaced 
roads  maintained  by  the  Public  Works  Department  and  30 
miles  maintained  by  the  District  Council.  But  in  the  whole 
District  there  are  only  some  4  miles  of  ist  class  road,  and  in 
the  rains  the  roads  of  the  District  are  not  easily  passable 
by  carts.  Means  of  communication  are  still  somewhat  poor  ; 
but  they  have  been  very  greatly  increased  in  the  past  lO 
or   I  2  years  as  a  result   of  the  relief  works  opened  in  the 


GEN'ERAL    ADMINISTRATIOX,  243 

famines.  Before  1897  there  was  scarcely  a  surfaced  road 
in  the  District.  Recently  several  commodious  inspection 
bungalows  have  been  built  along  the  roads.  The  Public 
Works  Department  spend  Rs.  34,425  yearly  on  the  mainten- 
ance of  their  roads. 

201.  The  present  District  forms  an  Irrigation  subdivision 

which  was  opened  in    ino6.     The  staff 

Irrigation. 

consists  of  a  Supervisor  as  Subdivisional 
Officer  and  5  sub-overseers.  The  works  completed  up  to 
1909  are  two  minor  tanks  at  Hardi  (Rs.  17,782)  and  Dhanras 
(Rs.  41,096)  and  two  grant-in-aid  works  (Loharsi  and  Chau- 
ha).  Two  grant-in-aid  tanks  now  in  Raipur  are  also  under  the 
Subdivisional  Officer's  charge.  There  has  been  no  charge 
for  maintenance  yet.  One  minor  tank  (Barpali)  is  under  con- 
struction (estimated  cost  Rs,  36,080).  Several  projects  have 
been  investigated  and  surveyed,  but  most  of  them  have  been 
rejected.  River  gauging  in  connection  with  some  of  the 
river  projects  is  being  carried  out, 

202.  The    strength  of  the   police  in   the  District  is  508 

officers    and   men    and    consists   of  — 
Police. 

I     District  Superintendent,    i   Deputy 

Superintendent,  5  Inspectors,    13    Sub-Inspectors,    ']6   head 

constables,    409    constables,    and  3    sowars.     Excluding  the 

Superintendent  and    Deputy  Superintendent  and  the  police 

engaged  in  guards,    reserve,     training    and   various    duties 

at    headquarters,  334    of  all    ranks  are    engaged  actually  in 

prevention   and   detection  of  crime,    that   is,    one  policeman 

for  every   23  square  miles  of  area    and  every    2746  people. 

a  very  small  proportion.    They    are  distributed  amongst  1 1 

Station-houses    with    27   subordinate   outposts.    The  annual 

cost   of   the    District    police    is   Rs.  '^o^i^G.      The  force    is 

recruited  almost  entirely  from  outside  the  District,  and  consists 

mostly  of  up-country  men.     The  District  contains  in  addition 

a  body  of  railway  police    under   an   Inspector    at    Bilaspur 

station.     The  latter  has  under  him  two  Sub-Inspectors,    of 

whom  one  at  Bilaspur  is  in  charge  of  the  length  of  line  from 


244  P.II.ASIM-K.       f;r.NF.RAI.    ADMINISTRATIC«\ 

Raipur  to  Janiga,  and  llic  other  at  Umaria  looks  after  the  Katnl 
brancli  line,  5  head  conslablcb  and  38  constables  who  work 
within  the  area  of  jurisdiction  of  the  District  Magistrate  of 
Bilaspur,  and  two  constables  at  Bhatapara  who  are  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  Raipur. 

Prior  to  ist  of  May  1888  all  zamlndars  were  respon- 
sible for  the  maintenance  and  administration  of  the  police 
within  their  estates.  But  from  that  date  the  zamlndars  of 
Pandaria,  Kanteli,  and  Champa  were  relieved  of  the 
responsibility,  as  were  the  other  zamlndars  from  the  ist 
September  1892.  Part  of  the  cost  of  police  within  their 
estates  was  added  to  their  land-revenue  payment  to  Gov- 
ernment. 

203.  Very  little  change  has  been  made  in  the  system 
of  kotwars    since    the    District    came 

Kotvvars.  ^^  ,         ,  »       i       /-  i 

under  British  rule.  At  the  first  settle- 
ment those  with  hereditary  rights  (if  any)  in  the  khalsa  were 
recorded  and  very  few  changes  were  made  at  the  second 
settlement  (1890).  A  change  in  the  rate  of  remuneration 
was  however  made.  At  the  first  settlement  the  payments 
varied  froni  5  to  10  kaiJias  diuvt  per  plough.  At  the  second 
settlement  the  rate  was  fixed  at  i  katlia  dJiaii  or  \  katJia 
wheat  per  rupee  of  rental,  the  malguzar  ha\'ing  to  pa}-  on  the 
rental  value  of  land  in  his  own  occupation,  but  deducting  the 
rental  value  of  any  service  holding  held  b}'  the  kotwar.  With 
the  great  increase  in  the  value  of  land  malguzars  show  a 
disinclination  to  grant  service  holdings  to  kotwfirs  and  at 
the  same  time  they  make  frequent  default  in  payment  of  their 
dues  to  the  kotwars.  The  kotwars  enjoy  several  perquisites, 
some  officially  recognised,  others  not,  such  as  remuneration 
for  weighing  grain  sold  in  the  village,  headloads  of  grain 
at  threshing  time  and  when  the  seed  bins  are  opened, 
collections  at  bazars,  and  presents  at  marriages.  Hides  of 
cattle  are  not  taken  by  tlie  kotwars  as  is  the  custom  in 
many  Districts.  The  kutwfir  is  nearly  always  a  Ganda  or 
Panka  by  caste.     He  is  seldom  called  kotv/ar,  usually  taJiIu, 


GFXERAI.    ADMINISTRATION.  245 

or  less  frequently  gnrhaif,  chaukiddr,  or  rapid  t^the  man  who 
makes  reports).  There  are  1706  kotvvars  in  the  khdlsa  for 
1864  inhabited  villages.  Fifty-three  villages  have  more  than 
one  kotwar. 

In  the  zamlndarls  the  kotwars  are  appointed  on  the 
zamlndar's  nomination.  Their  dues  have  not  been  fixed  autho- 
ritatively by  Government,  and  differ  in  various  estates.  In 
the  western  zamlndaris  Pandarla  and  Kanteli  and  in  Champa, 
that  is  the  zamlndaris  which  are  mostly'  open  like  the  khdlsa^ 
the  remuneration  is  similarly  on  the  rental.  In  the  nor- 
thern zamlndaris  the  remuneration  is  usuall}'  5  kdtJms  dJidii 
per  plough  and  the  tenants  cultivate  the  kotwar's  holding  for 
him.  Another  distinctive  perquisite  is  R.  i  yearly  for  a  blanket. 

As  the  zamlndaris  have  been  opened  out  considerably 
of  recent  years,  the  distribution  of  villages  to  kotwars  has 
become  very  unequal  and  will  need  considerable  revision  at 
the  settlement  now  proceeding.  There  are  now  988  kotwars 
in  the  zamlndaris  for  1381  inhabited  villages.  Nine  villages 
in  zamlndaris  have  more  than  one  kotwar. 

204.  The  Superintendent  of  the  Jail  is  the  Civil  Surgeon, 
an  officer  of  the  Indian  Medical  Service. 

Jail. 

The  staff  consists  of  i  Jailor,  i  Assist- 
ant Jailor,  3  head  warders,  18  warders  and  a  Hospital 
Assistant,  who  is  also  in  charge  of  the  police  hospital.  The 
jail  is  a  4th  class  District  jail  and  has  accommodation  for  164 
prisoners  (including  21  in  hospital,  5  in  cells,  18  females,  28 
under-trials  and  3  civil  prisoners).  Since  1900  the  average 
daily  number  of  prisoners  has  been — igoi,  196,  k^oj,  178, 
/poj,  140,  /po/,  1 16,  igo=;,  115,  igo6,  108  and  igoj,  92.  The 
average  daily  number  of  female  prisoners  during  the  same 
period  has  been  10,  and  of  literate  prisoners  20.  In  1908 
the  averao'e  daily  number  of  prisoners  was  104,  of  whom  11 
were  females  and  20  literate.  In  the  same  period  the  average 
yearly  cost  of  each  prisoner's  diet  has  been  Rs.  25-8-10  and 
the  average  total  charges  per  head  havebeen  Rs.  75-^3-9.  Each 
prisoner  has  earned   in  cash  yearly  an   average  of  Rs.  7-4-4. 


246  IMI.ASI'CK         (.KMRAI.    ADM  f  Ms  I  KATION. 

The  total  cost  to  Government  of  each  prisoner  tlierefore  has 
been  Rs.  68-9-5  yearly.  At  present  the  industries  arc  aloe- 
pounding,  wheat  grinding,  wire  netting  and  stone  breaking. 
Since  1900  there  have  been  yearly  two  to  three  deaths  in  the 
jail,  and  eight  prisoners  have  escaped  of  whom  five  were  recap- 
tured. Habitual  criminals  sentenced  to  more  than  six  months 
and  casuals  sentenced  to  more  than  one  year  are  sent  to  the 
Raipur  Central  Jail  to  serve  their  sentences.  Criminals 
sentenced  to  death  are  also  sent  to  Raipur  Central  Jail  for 
execution. 

205.  At  the  1901  census  17,754  males  and  502  females 
were  literate  or  y6  per  cent,   of  the 

Education.  r    ■,        r         ^ 

male  population  and  O'l  of  the  female 
population.  The  District  was  the  least  literate  in  the  Pro- 
vince, with  one  exception,  in  proportion  to  the  population. 
There  has  been  considerable  progress  since.  In  1900-01 
there  were  8594  pupils  and  in  1903-04  12,351  under 
instruction.  In  1908-09  there  were  18,140  pupils  under 
instruction,  and  this  in  a  District  reduced  in  area  and 
population  since  1906.  In  1900-01  there  were  148  schools, 
and  in  190S-09  198.  Of  these  185  are  boys'  schools 
and  13  girls'  schools.  The  boys'  schools  comprise  one 
Municipal  High  School  (raised  from  middle  school  in 
1904),  one  aided  English  middle  school  (for  the  railway 
native  staff;,  10  District  Council  vernacular  middle  schools, 
one  aided  vernacular  middle  school  (maintained  at  Bilaspur 
by  the  Mission),  3  Municipal  primary  schools,  129  District 
Council  schools,  15  aided  (of  v/hich  7  are  maintained  by  Mis- 
sions) and  25  unaided  schools  (of  which  6  are  maintained  b}- 
Missions,  one  by  the  zamlndar  of  Korba,  one  by  the  Muham- 
madans   of  Bilaspur  town   and  17  by  village  subscriptions). 

The  girls'  schools  comprise  one  aided  vernacular  middle 
school  (maintained  by  the  Mission  in  Bilaspur  town)  and 
7  Government  primary  schools,  4  aided  (3  under  Missions 
and  one  maintained  by  the  zamindar,  Pandarla)  and  one 
unaided  school  (maintained   by   the  Mission). 


GENERAL   ADMINISTRATION.  247 

The  number  of  pupils  at  the  High  School  is  259,  at  the 
boys'  middle  schools  1936  and  at  the  boys'  primary  schools 
14,957  (of  whom  1025  are  girls).  At  the  girls'  middle  school 
203  pupils  attend  and  785  at  the  primary  schools.  The  total 
number  of  boy  pupils  is  therefore  16,128  and  of  girls  2012, 
the  total  number  of  children  going  to  school  being  18,140. 
Of  boys  of  school-going  age  2i'9  per  cent,  and  of  girls  28  per 
cent,  attend  school.  There  are  teachers'  training  classes 
attached  to  eight  boys'  and  one  girls'  vernacular  middle 
school.  The  average  daily  attendance  in  1908-09  was  72 
per  cent,  of  all  pupils  enrolled.  In  the  khdlsa,  or  open 
parts  of  the  District,  excluding  Bilaspur  town,  there  is  one 
school  for  every  12  villages  on  an  average.  The  zamlndaris 
are  very  backward  and  only  contain  30  schools  for  1460 
villages.  The  total  expenditure  for  1908-09  was  Rs.  93,160 
and  has  nearly  trebled  in  the  last  ten  years.  Of  the  expen- 
diture, Rs.  39,877  were  from  Provincial  funds  (including 
grants  to  Local  Bodies  for  education),  Rs.  2j ,'/y2>  were  from 
District  Council  funds,  Rs.  7607  from  Municipal  funds, 
Rs.  8218  from  fees,  and  Rs.  9685  from  private  sources. 
The  High  School  is  recognised  by  the  Allahabad  University. 

The  Inspector  of  Schools  of  the  Chhattlsgarh  Circle  v/ith 
headquarters  at  Raipur  is  the  local  departmental  officer.  He 
has  two  deputies  for  the  District,  one  for  the  western  portion 
and  the  otiier  for  the  eastern  portion. 

In  the  last  few  years  very  great  progress  has  been  made 
in  constructing  new  school  buildings,  raising  masters'  pay 
and  opening  new  schools.  The  people  as  a  whole  cannot  be 
said  to  be  very  anxious  for  education  and  official  pressure  has 
frequently  to  be  brought  to  bear  on  parents.  The  Chamars 
who  form  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  population  are  least 
anxious  for  it ;  and  other  castes  are  not  keen  on  the  attendance 
of  Chamar  boys  at  the.  public  schools,  so  that  local  opposition 
has  not  infrequently  to  be  broken  down.  Schoolmasters 
generally  have  other  duties  to  perform,  which  bring  them  in 
additions  to  their  pay  and  sometimes  interfere  with  their 


248  BILASPUR.       GENERAL    ADMINISIRATIO.S'. 

teaching  duties.  Such  additional  duties  are  cattle  registration 
on  bazar  days,  the  charge  of  cattle  pounds,  post  offices  and 
tlie  vend  of  stamps  and  quinine.  There  is  one  European 
school  in  the  District  which  was  opened  in  1852  by  the  Bengal- 
Nagpur  Railway  Company  for  children  of  its  employes  and 
is  attended  by  both  boys  and  girls,  the  number  on  the  rolls 
in  1909  being  36.  The  staff  consists  of  a  head  mistress  and 
an  assistant  mistress  and  it  is  inspected  by  the  Inspector  of 
European  Schools,  Bombay  and  Central  Provinces.  The 
expenditure  in  1908-09  was  Rs.  2134,  which  was  met  by  a 
Provincial  grant  of  Rs.  643,  a  railway  donation  of  Rs.  600 
and  receipts  from  fees  amounting  to  Rs.  891. 

206.  There  are  ten  hospitals  and  dispensaries  in  the 
District.  These  include  a  police  hos- 
pital at  headquarters,  the  Bengal-Nag- 
pur  Railway  hospital  at  Bilaspur  under  an  Assistant  Surgeon 
and  European  Doctor  and  two  Mission  hospitals  at  Bilaspur 
and  Mungell.  That  at  Bilaspur  is  for  women  and  children 
and  has  32  beds;  that  at  Mungeli  is  a  general  hospital  with 
12  beds  for  men  and  12  for  women,  and  in  connection 
with  it  a  branch  dispensary  is  opened  on  bazar  da^'S  at  Bareli 
.9  miles  away.  Two  hospitals  were  built  by  the  Court  of 
Wards  in  the  Pendra  and  Pandaria  zamlndaris  when  those 
estates  were  under  management  and  are  now  maintained  by 
the  zamindars,  Government  supplying  each  with  the  services 
of  a  Hospital  Assistant.  The  Pendra  hospital  has  2  beds  for 
women  and  2  for  men,  while  that  at  Pandaria  has  4  beds  for 
men  and  4  for  women.  There  are  four  public  hospitals 
and  dispensaries  maintained  by  contributions  from  Govern- 
ment, from  local  funds  and  private  subscriptions.  They 
are — (i)  the  main  dispensary  at  Bilaspur  under  an  Assistant 
Surgeon  with  iC  bed'?  for  men  and  12  for  women;  a  midwife 
is  also  attached  here;  (2)  branch  dispensaries  at  Mungell 
with  3  beds  for  men  and  3  for  women,  Janjgir  with  2  beds 
for  men  and  2  for  women  and  Chandarpur,  each  under  a 
Hospital   Assistant.     There   are    no  beds  for  in-patients    at 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATIOX.  249 

Chandarpur.  In  1908  the  Mungell  Mission  hospital  with  its 
branch  bazar  dispensary  treated  285  in-patients  and  13,578 
out-patients.  The  Bilaspur  Mission  hospital  treated  318 
in-patients  and  42  10  out-patients  At  the  public  main  dis- 
pensary at  Bilaspur  the  average  daily  indoor  attendance  in 
1908  was  20  and  of  outdoor  patients  89.  At  the  other  five 
public  and  private  aided  (zamindarij  dispensaries  the  daily 
average  of  indoor  patients  was  between  2  and  3  and  of  out- 
door patients  31. 

The  income  of  the  four  public  dispensaries   in  1908  was 

from — 

Rs. 

Government  ...  ...  ...  4,921 

Local  Funds  ...  ...  ...  7,986 

Subscriptions  ...  ...  ...  665 

Other  sources  ...  ...  ...  287 


Total  ...    13,859 

Their  expenditure  was  Rs.  10,568,  and  there  is  a  fair 
balance  in  each  Dispensary  Fund.  To  the  two  zamindari 
dispensaries  Government  contributed  Rs.  Sit,  the  rest  of  the 
expenditure  Rs.  2107  being  defraj^ed  b}''  the  zamlndars. 
Only  one  dispensary  (Janjgir)  has  invested  funds  (Rs.  2500) 
Post-mortem  examinations  for  police  cases  are  held  at 
Bilaspur,  MungelT,  Pendra,  Janjgir  and  Chandarpur,  all  of 
which  places  possess  mortuaries  except  Chandarpur,  where 
one  is  to  be  built.  There  is  a  mortuary  at  Pandaria,  but 
post  mortem  examinations  are  not  held  there.  There  are 
two  leper  asylums  in  the  District  supported  mainly  by 
Missions.  That  at  Mungeli  is  under  the  management  of 
the  .'Xmerican  Foreign  Christian  Mission  and  is  reserved  for 
males  and  married  couples  ;  a  branch  for  females  has  recently 
been  built  at  Pendrldih — a  village  9  miles  from  Mungell 
belonging  to  the  Mission.  Funds  are  provided  by  the  Mission 
to  Lepers  in  the  East.  But  since  ist  May  1903  Government 
has   given    a   monthly   donation  of    R.    i-S-o  per  adult    and 

KK 


250  niLASPUR.       GFNFRAL    ADMINISTRATION. 

twelve  annas  per  child  for  every  resident  leper  from  British 
territory  There  are  at  present  (1909)  53  men  and  48 
Women  in  the  asylum. 

The  other  asylum  is  at  Champa  and  is  managed  and 
mainly  supported  by  the  American  Mcnnonite  Conference. 
Since  ist  April  1908  the  Government  has  given  the  donation 
already  mentioned.  There  are  at  present  (1909)  103  lepers, 
but  of  these  only  26  men,  25  women,  and  2  children  resident 
in  the  asylum  get  the  monthly  donation,  as  the  grant  was 
limited   to  the  number  in  the  asylum  at  the  time  of  sanclion. 

Quinine  is  sold  in  i  pice  packets  containing  7  grains 
at  all  post  offices,  and  at  18  other  places  by  schoolmasters 
and  licensed  stamp  vendors    under  Government  supervision. 

207.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  in  the  municipal  area 
of   Bilaspur.     Elsewhere    there    is    no 

Vaccination. 

legal  compulsion,  but  a  very  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  children  under  one  j-ear  of  age  are 
successfully  vaccinated.  It  is  claimed  that  over  99  per  cent, 
of  primary  vaccinations  in  the  years  1906-07,  1907-08, 
and  1908-09  were  successful,  the  number  of  primary  vacci- 
nations done  by  vaccinators  being  39,499  in  1906-07, 
39,184  in  J 907-08  and  33,423  in  1908-09,  the  rate  being 
43,  44  and  38  respectively  per  thousand  of  the  population  of 
the  present  District  according  to  the  last  census.  Of  the 
children  born  in  the  year,  81  per  cent,  in  1906-07,  87  per 
cent,  in  1907-08  and  82  per  cent,  in  1908-09  were  suc- 
cessfully vaccinated. 

There  is  no  general  objection  to  primary  vaccination, 
but  re-vaccination  is  not  much  in  favour.  In  1908-09 
though  smali-pox  was  very  bad  only  1361  persons  were 
vaccinated.  There  is  one  vaccinator  for  the  town  of  Bilas- 
pur, and  for  the  rest  of  the  District  the  work  is  done  by  2 
assistant  superintendents,  21  vaccinators  and  2  apprentices. 
It  is  proposed  to  appoint  shortly  two  more  assistant  superin- 
tendents. The  vaccinators  work  usually  during  the  cold 
weather   from    October  to    March,  and    until    1908    used   to 


GEiNERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  25  I 

come  into  Bilaspur  for  six  montlis.  They  now  reside  in 
their  circles  the  whole  year.  The  total  cost  of  vaccination 
in  1908-09  was  Rs.  4998  all  of  which,  except  Rs.  198 
travelling  allowance,  was  defrayed  by  the  Local  Bodies. 
The  average  cost  of  each  successful  case  in  1908-09  was 
R.  0-2-3.  The  control  of  the  vaccination  staff  now  rests 
with  the  Local  Bodies,  who  still  however  find  it  best  to  work 
through  the  Civil  Surgeon.  The  District  is  always  notorious 
for  the  prevalence  of  small-pox  ;  the  annual  mortality  from 
this  cause  varying  between  1902  and  1007  from  0*44  to  0'9i 
per  thousand  of  the  population.     In  1908  it  rose  to  2'59. 

208,  A  veterinary  dispensary  at  Bilaspur  was  opened  in 
June    1898.     From  1898    to  1905   the 

Veterinarj'  dis.pensary. 

dispensary  was  located  in  a  rented 
house.  New  buildings  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  2300  were  constructed 
in  1905,  the  Government  giving  a  contribution.  Additions  and 
alterations  to  the  Bilaspur  buildings  are  being  made  in  1909 
at  a  cost  of  Rs.  44S0.  A  second  veterinary  assistant  for 
Bilaspur  for  touring  in  the  villages  was  appointed  in  1903  and 
one  for  Mungell  in  1908.  It  is  proposed  to  appoint  a  veteri- 
nary assistant  for  Janjgir  and  the  District  Council  is  ready  to 
maintain  a  dispensary  there  also  so  soon  as  a  man  can  be  sent. 
All  the  veterinary  assistants  are  to  be  paid  from  Provincial 
Funds  from  ist  March  1909,  but  in  190S-09  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance to  the  District  Council  was  Rs.  2404.  The  Municipal 
Committee  of  Bilaspur  contributes  Rs.  500  yearly  to  the  cost. 
During  the  year  1908-09,  4843  patients  were  treated  at  the 
Bilaspur  and  Mungell  dispensaries  and  74  reports  of  cattle 
disease  from  villages  in  the  District  were  attended  to. 
Six  hundred  and  two  animals  were  inoculated  for  rinderpest. 
Most  of  this  work  was  done  from  the  Bilaspur  dispensary, 
the  Mungell  dispensary  having  been  opened  late  in  the  year. 


APPENDIX. 


GAZETTEER  OF  TAHSILS,  ZAMINDARIS, 
TOWNS,   IMPORTANT  VILLAGES, 
RIVERS  AND   HILLS. 


^  »iB« 


GATEWAY    OF     OLD    TEMPLE    ADBHAR,    CHANDARPUR. 


APPENDIX. 


GAZETTEER  OF  TAHSILS,  ZAMINDARIS,  TOWNS, 
IMPORTANT  VILLAGES,  RIVERS,  AND  HILLS. 
Adbhar. — A  village  in  the  Chandarpur  estate  about  40 
miles  from  Bilaspur  with  a  population  of  1300  persons.  It 
contains  an  old  temple  of  Devi  of  which  two  ornamental 
doorways  remain.  One  of  these,  the  gateway  of  the  enclosure, 
is  very  severe  in  outline  and  very  much  like  some  of  the  later 
cave  doorways  such  as  are  found  at  Ajanta.  The  other  is 
the  entrance  of  the  shrine  and  has  sculptured  jambs  like  those 
at  Rajim  and  Sirpur.  On  the  corner  of  either  jamb  is  a 
Naga  figure,  whose  tails  run  up  the  sides  and  along  the 
lintel.  Here  they  meet  a  little  central  figure  which  is  perhaps 
that  of  Garuda.  On  the  site  of  this  temple  is  a  hut  containing 
an  image  of  Mahishasura  MardinI,  who  is  now  worshipped 
as  Kali.  The  hut  also  contains  a  Jain  seated  figure.  Tlie 
village  has  a  number  of  old  tanks  and  the  traces  of  old  forts 
with  moats  round  them.  It  contains  a  primary  school.  The 
proprietor  is  a  Chhattisgarhl  Brahman  who  has  four  other 
villages. 

Agar  River. — A  river  which  rises  in  the  Maikal  range 
in  the  north  of  Pandaria  zamlndari  and  flows  south  and  east 
through  that  zamlndari  and  Mungell  tahsil  until  it  joins  the 
Maniari  near  Kukusda.  The  town  of  Mungell  is  situated 
on  the  Agar. 

Akaltara. — A  village  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil  and  the 
second  railway  station  from  Bilaspur  towards  Janjgir.  lis 
area  is  nearly  5000  acres  and  the  population  was  2100 
persons  in  1901  as  against  1800  in  1891.  Mr.  Hira  Lai 
thinks  that  the  name  may  be  derived  from  Akaldeva,  the 
younger  brother  of  Prithvldeva  II  of  tlie  Haihaya  dynasty  of 
Ratanpur.     His  name  is    mentioned  in  an  inscription   which 


256  ARPA    RIVF.R — DALODA. 

is  now  in  the  bungalow  of  Mr.  Considine  in  Bilaspur.  There 
are  a  number  of  temples  here  built  in  a  modern  patchwork 
style  with  bricks  and  other  materials,  probably  taken  from 
older  buildings  on  the  same  site.  Two  temples  still  stand 
and  an  erection  which  is  known  as  the  Mahal  or  palace,  but 
is  of  very  modest  dimensions.  Two  important  inscriptions 
were  discovered  here,  both  of  which  had  been  brought  from 
Kotgarh.  One  of  them  is  fixed  in  the  wall  of  a  temple  of 
Siva  built  by  the  malguzar  about  30  years  ago.  It  refers  to 
the  Kalachuri  kings  of  Ratanpur  and  to  a  chief  named 
Vallabharaja,  a  subordinate  of  theirs,  who  is  recorded  to  have 
built  a  temple  of  Revanta  and  made  a  lake  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  palace  and  stables,  in  the  year  893  of  the  Kalachuri  era 
or  1141  A.D.  It  is  probable  that  this  temple  was  constructed 
in  Kotgarh  where  the  inscription  was  found.  The  other 
Inscription  has  been  removed  to  the  Raipur  Museum.  About 
8  miles  from  Akaltara  is  a  hill  known  as  the  Dalha  Pahar 
which,  rising  solitary  from  the  plain,  forms  a  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  landscape  for  a  long  distance.  The  name  Dal 
is  said  to  be  a  term  used  for  an  elephant.  Akaltara  has  a 
considerable  amount  of  trade  and  markets  are  held  on  Mondays 
and  Fridays.  It  has  a  fine  tank  and  a  large  area  of  sugarcane 
cultivation.  The  village  is  the  headquarters  of  a  Revenue 
Inspector  and  contains  a  primary  school  and  a  post  office. 
The  proprietors  are  two  Darailia  Rajputs. 

Arpa  River. — A  stream  which  rises  beyond  the  range 
north  of  Kenda  in  the  Bilaspur  District,  and  after  a  picturesque 
course  tlirough  the  hills,  enters  the  plain  of  the  Bilaspur 
tahsil,  through  which  it  flows  for  about  40  miles  skirting  the 
town  of  Bilaspur  until  it  joins  the  Seonath  near  the  village  of 
Bartori.  It  is  crossed  by  the  railwa}'  near  Karra  in  the 
Bilaspur  tahsTl.  Sugarcane  and  vegetables  are  grown  in 
many  villages  in  the  fertile  kaclilidr  soil  along  the  banks  of 
the  Arpa. 

Baloda. — A  large  village  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil  10  miles 
north  of  Akaltara  station  and  about  20  miles   from  Bilaspur. 


BAMHMDIH — BILASPUR    TAHSIL.  2  57 

Its  area  is  3500  acres,  and  the  population  was  2600  persons 
in  1901  as  against  2800  in  1891.  The  village  has  some 
trade  in  lac,  salt  and  thread,  and  brass  ornaments  are  made 
here.  It  contains  a  primary  school  and  a  post  office,  and  a 
number  of  tanks.     The  proprietor  is  a  Sonar. 

Bamhnidih  (The  place  of  Brahmans)  — A  large 
village  in  the  Champa  zamlndari  of  the  Janjgir  tahsil, 
situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Hasdo  river,  12  miles 
south  of  Champa,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  metalled 
road.  Its  area  is  2000  acres  and  the  population  was  more 
than  2700  persons  in  19CI,  having  increased  by  a  thousand 
during  the  preceding  decade.  The  largest  cattle-market  of 
the  District  is  held  here  on  Fridays  and  Saturdays,  and 
animals  are  brought  for  sale  from  Rewah  and  the  northern 
Districts  of  the  Central  Provinces.  Sales  are  registered  and 
a  small  fee  is  charged.  Grain,  timber,  bamboos  and  lac  are 
also  sold  at  the  market.  The  village  has  a  primary  school 
and  a  branch  post  office. 

Belpan — A  village  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil,  about  20  miles 
from  Bilaspur,  with  a  population  of  200  persons  in  1901  as 
against  more  than  400  in  1891.  The  small  stream  of  the 
Nerbudda  has  its  source  in  a  spring  here.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  Nerbudda  river  flowed  underground  from  Amar- 
kantak  at  the  request  of  a  holy  man  and  came  out  at  this 
place.  In  order  to  test  the  fact  the  sage  threw  a  leaf  of  the 
^^/ tree  with  his  name  written  upon  it  into  the  Nerbudda  at 
Amarkantak  and  found  it  again  in  tliis  spring,  hence  the 
place  was  called  Belpan  or  '  The  Leaf  of  the  Bel  Tree. '  An 
annual  fair  is  held  here  on  the  last  day  of  Magh  (January- 
February),  lasting  for  three  days.  Traders  come  from 
Bilaspur  and  Mandla  and  vessels  of  bell-metal  and  lac  toys 
are  sold.  The  attendance  is  about  10,000  persons.  The 
village  has  a  temple  of  Mahadeo  and  some  fine  tanks.  The 
proprietor  is  a  Kayasth. 

Bilaspur  Tahsil. — The  central  and  headquarters  tah- 
sil of  the  District  lying  between  21  '  43'  and  23'^  7'  N.   and 

LL 


258  BILASPUR    TAIISIL. 

8i''44'  andS.i''  40'  E.  Tlie  former  area  of  the  tahsll  was  5080 
square  miles,  or  as  large  as  an  average  District  of  tlie  Central 
Provinces,  but  in  1906  on  the  formation  of  the  new  Drug  District 
it  was  considerably  reduced  in  size.     The  Tarenga  estate  lying 
south  of  the  Seonath    river  with  an  area  of  226  square  miles 
was  transferred  to  the  Daloda  Bazar  tahsil  of  Raipur,   and  the 
three  zamindaris  of  Korba,  Chhuri  and  Uprora  with  an  area  of 
1643  square   miles   to  the   J anjgir  tahsil.     At  the  same  time 
for  better  adjustment  of  boundaries  a  small  area  of  21   square 
miles  lying  to  the   west  of  the  Maniari  river  was  transferred 
from  Bilaspur  to  Mungeli,  and  79  square  miles  comprised  in 
the  Baloda  tract    from    Bilaspur  to  Janjgir.     The  area  of  the 
reconstituted  tahsil  is  31  ii  square   miles  or  41    per  cent,  of 
that   of  the  District,  and  it  is  the  largest  of  the  three  tahsils. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Rewah  and  Korea  States, 
on  tlie  west  by  the  Mungeli  tahsil,  on  the  east  by  the  Janjgir 
tahsil  and  on  the  south  by  the  Raipur   District.     It  contains 
^6  square  miles  of  Government  forest.      It  also  includes  the 
zamindari  estates  of  Pendra,  Kenda,  Lapha,  and  Matin  with 
an  area  of   1976  square    miles.     The  tahsil   consists  of  an 
open  plain,    mainly   producing  rice,    to    the    south,    and  an 
expanse  of  hill  and  forest  comprised  in  the  zamindari  estates 
to  the  north.     In  the  latter  tract  some  of  the  wildest  country 
in  Chhattisgarh  may  be  found.     A  small  khdlsa  tract  consist- 
ing of  hills  and  jungle  also  lies  round  Ratanpur   and    Bitkuli 
in   the  north.     The    principal   streams  which   intersect    the 
Bilaspur  tahsil   are  the   Nerbudda,   Ghonga,  Arpa,   Kharun 
and  the  Li  1  agar,  which  fall  into  the   Seonath.     The   Lilagar 
forms  the  natural  boundary  between  the  two  tahsils  of  Bilas- 
pur and  Janjgir.     The  Maniari  in  the  west  forms  the  natural 
boundary   between  the  Mungeli  and  Bilaspur  tahsils  and  the 
Sconatli    in    the    soutli-east     forms   the    natural    boundary 
between  Raipur  and  Bilaspur.      The  Son  rises  on  the  Pendra 
plateau  and  flows  towards  Northern  India  ;  and  2  miles  over 
the  border  at  Amarkantak,  now  in  Rewah  State  but  formerly 
in  Pendra,  rises  the  Nerbudda. 


BILASPUR    TAHSIL.  259 

The   population  of  the  reconstituted  tahsil  in  1901  was 
321,915  persons  or  35  per  cent,  of  that 

Population.  ,         ,  t  r.  ,  i 

of  the  District,  In  1891  the  popula- 
tion was  345,332  persons,  and  during  the  decade  the  popu- 
lation decreased  by  about  7  per  cent,  which  was  less  than 
that  of  either  of  the  other  two  tahslls.  Bilaspur  is  sparsely 
populated  with  103  persons  per  square  mile  as  against  122 
in  Mungell  and  138  in  Janjgir  tahsil.  The  tahsil  contains 
two  towns,  Bilaspur  and  Ratanpur,  and  1049  inhabited  and 
49  uninhabited  villages.  Besides  the  two  towns  five  villages, 
Ghutku  (2024),  Ganiari  (2353),  Mallar  (201O),  Takhatpur 
(2616)  and  Pendra  (245/)  contained  between  2000  and  5000 
persons,  and  the  following  17  villages  contained  over  lOOO 
persons  in  looi  : — Birkona  (1836),  Gataura  (I9;:2),  Hardi- 
kalan  (1299),  Loharsi  (1677),  Mopka  (1132),  Neosa  (1152), 
Neora  (1139),  Nargora  (1016),  Okhar  (1018),  Paonsara 
(1351),  Ranigaon  ( 1  517;,  Sipat  (1783),  Bacharwar  (1067), 
Gaurela(i704),  Amali  (1052),  Kota  (1  367)  and  Pondi  (1090). 
The  description  of  soils  given  in  the  chapter  on  Agricul- 
ture  applies   v/ithout  variation   to  the 

Agriculture. 

ahsll.  Of  the  total  area  of  the  tahsil 
in  1906-07,  96  square  miles  or  3  per  cent  were  covered  by 
Government  forests,  another  area  of  658  square  miles  was 
covered  by  zamindari  forests,  and  of  the  malguzari  area  286 
square  miles  consist  of  forest,  scrub  jungle  and  grass.  Of 
the  village  area  of  997  square  miles  a  proportion  of  66  per 
cent,  was  occupied  for  cultivation  in  1907-08,  while  the  pro- 
portion of  occupied  area  in  the  zamindaris  was  22  percent. 
The  cultivated  area  in  1907-08  was  581,278  acres  and  the 
net  cropped  area  469,787  acres.  Rice  covered  329,167 
acres  or  63  per  cent.,  linseed  16,887  acres  or  3  per  cent., 
urad,  mung  and  moth  20,942  acres  or  5  per  cent.,  wheat 
18,797  acres  or  3  per  cent,  kodon-kutki  82,387  acres  or  16 
per  cent.,  tiura  19,838  acres  or  3  per  cent.,  til  16,745  acres 
or  3  per  cent,  and  gram  4702  acres  or  i  per  cent.  The  double- 
cropped  area  was  49,214    acres.     The   irrigated    area    rose 


26o  IIILA.SPUR    TOWN. 

from  5803  acres  in  1906  07  to  49,807  acres  in  1907-08. 
The  statistics  of  cropping  during  the  three  years  1905-oG  to 
1907-08  are  shown  on  tiic  next  page. 

The  land  revenue  of  the  malguzari  area  was  Rs.  1,31,132 
in  1907-08  and  cesses   were  Ks.  7729. 

Land  Revenue.  r^,      ,        ,  r  ,i         r-. 

The  land  revenue  fell  at  R.  0-4-2  per 
cultivated  acre.  The  demand  for  takol'i\x\  the  zamindaris 
was  Rs.  11,220  and  for  cesses  Rs.  860.  A  fresh  settlement 
is  now  being  made. 

The   tahsil   is  divided   into  six  Revenue  Inspectors'  cir- 
cles    with     headquarters     at    Kandar, 

Miscellaneous.  _  _  r-v  -  i 

Bija,  Nargora,  Masiuri,  Pendra,  and 
Kenda  and  131  patwaris'  circles.  It  has  four  police  Station- 
houses  at  Bilaspur,  Ratanpur,  Pendra,  and  Kota,  and  1 1  out- 
posts, viz.,  Bilaspur  town,  Hirri,  Ganiari,  Masturi,  Nargora, 
Lapha,  Kenda,  Marwahi,  Matin,  Takhatpur,  and  Kargi.  Of 
these,  Matin  cutpost  is  subordinate  to  Korba  Station-house 
in  Janjgir  tahsil,  Takhatjjur  and  Kargi  outposts  to  Station- 
houses  in  Mungeli  tahsil. 

Bilaspur  Town. — The  headquarters  town  of  the  District, 

situated  in  22^  5'  iN.  and  82"^  10'  E.  on 
Position  and  population. 

the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  ']'j6  miles 

from  Bombay  and  445  miles  from  Calcutta  by  rail.  A  branch 
line  of  198  miles  leads  from  Bilaspur  to  Katnl  junction  on 
the  East  Indian  Railway.  The  town  stands  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  river  Arpa,  three  miles  from  the  railway  station. 
The  population  was  18,937  persons  in  1901  as  against  11,1  .2 
in  1891.  Bilaspur  is  rapidly  increasing  in  importance  and 
the  population  has  almost  quadrupled  since  1872.  In  1901 
the  population  included  2364  Muhammadans  and  543  Chris- 
tians. 

The   town   is    said  to  have    been   founded   about    350 
years   ago  bv    a    fisherwoman    named 

Historical. 

Bilasa,  from  whom  it  takes  its  name. 
For  a  long  period  it  consisted  only  of  a  few  fishermen's 
huts,  but   about  1770  A.D.  a  Maratha  officer  of  the  District 


BILASPUR    TOWN. 


261 


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262  BII.ASPUR    TOWN. 

took  up   his  residence  here  and  began  to  build  a  fort.     This 
was  never  completed  but  a  portion  of"  it  still  exists  on  the  bank 
of  the  river.    The  Marathas  up  to  1818  A.D.  always  maintained 
their  headquarters  at  Ratanpur,  and  hence  Bilaspur  remained 
in  comparative    insignificance.     It    was    chosen  as  the  head- 
quarters of  the  new  Bilaspur  District  in    1862  and  since  then 
has  made  steady  progress  in  wealth  and  population.     Bilaspur 
has  no  antiquarian   remains    of  its  own,    but  some   statues 
and  inscriptions  have  been    brought  from    Ratanpur,  Mallar, 
and  Janjgir  and  are  in  the  bungalows  of  private  gentlemen. 
Bilaspur    was    constituted     a     municipality     in      1867 
and    has   a    committee  of  twelve  mem- 
Municipai  undertak-        bers.     The  average  municipal  receipts 

ings  and  trade.  a  r  r 

for  the  decade  ending  1901  were 
Rs.  33,000,  and  the  expenditure  was  practically  the  same.  In 
1906  the  receipts  amounted  to  Rs.  39,000,  of  which 
Rs.  23,000  were  derived  from  octroi.  The  total  municipal  area 
is  2771  acres,  of  which  653  are  Government  land  and  139 
have  been  acquired  by  the  railway.  The  town  contains 
portions  of  the  malguzari  villages  of  Bilaspur,  Chanta  and 
Khudurdand.  It  is  divided  into  three  wards,  Chatapara,  Gol 
Bazar  and  Old  Bilaspur,  and  extends  for  about  two  miles 
along  the  southern  bank  of  the  river,  the  railway  line  being 
to  the  east  and  the  civil  station  to  the  west.  The  principal 
market  is  the  Gol  Bazar  and  the  new  town,  known  as  Cha- 
tapara, lies  to  the  west  of  this.  Bilaspur  has  a  large  import 
trade  but  in  respect  of  exports  it  ranks  after  Akaltara  and 
Bhatapara.  Its  trade  is  principally  with  Bombay.  The 
chief  local  industries  are  the  weaving  of  tasar  silk  and  cotton 
cloth  ;  and  brass  ornaments  are  also  made.  Bilaspur  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  Central  Provinces  Agency  for  recruiting 
labour  for  the  Assam  Tea  Gardens.  The  European  com- 
munity comprises,  in  addition  to  the  officers  usually  found 
at  a  District  headquarters  station,  a  number  of  railway 
servants,  and  Bilaspur  is  the  headquarters  of  a  company  of 
volunteers.    A  large  weekly  market  is  held  on  Saturdays,  and 


BISESARA.  263 

there  is  also  a  cattle-market,  the  animals  brought  for  sale 
being  collected  on  a  piece  of  grass  land  in  the  centre  of  the 
town  adjoining  the  river. 

The   educational    institutions    comprise    a  High  School, 
which    obtained    this    status   in    1905 

I'ublic  institutions.  ,   .        „,.         ,  ,         ,11    i  -u-j   tt    • 

and  IS  affiliated  to  the  Allahabad  Uni- 
versity. About  50  pupils  are  enrolled  in  the  High  School 
class  and  268  in  the  middle  school  class.  There  are  also 
three  branch  schools,  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school  and 
a  girls' school,  while  the  American  Evangelical  Mission  sup- 
ports a  vernacular  middle  school  for  boys  and  two  schools 
for  girls.  The  railway  community  have  an  English  middle 
school  and  one  for  European  children.  The  medical  institu- 
tions comprise  a  municipal  dispensary  and  two  others  belong- 
ing to  the  police  and  the  American  Mission,  26  beds  being 
available  for  indoor  patients.  The  District  Council  maintains 
a  veterinary  dispensary  with  two  assistants.  A  station  of 
the  Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society  of  America  was 
opened  here  in  1885.  A  church  has  been  built,  and  the  Mis- 
sion also  supports  an  orphanage  for  girls,  schools  for  boys 
and  gills,  and  a  dispensary.  Another  church  was  built  on 
railway  land  in  1907.  The  town  has  three  post  offices.  A 
Town  Hall  was  built  in  1896  at  acost  of  about  Rs.  I2,000 
by  the  District  Council  and  Municipality. 

Bisesara. — A  small  village  in  the  Pendra  zamindari 
situated  about  9  miles  from  Pendra  on  the  Son  river,  with  a 
population  of  200  persons.  The  name  is  a  corruption  of 
Vishweswara  or  *  The  Lord  of  the  Universe,'  a  Hindu  Saint. 
The  village  contains  the  remains  of  a  Sivite  monastery  and 
some  temples  and  statues.  These  figures  appear  to  be  as 
old  as  those  of  Dhanpur,  which  Mr.  Beglar  assigns  to  the 
period  of  about  the  ninth  century  A.  D.  The  old  site  of 
the  village  has  been  abandoned  for  fear  of  the  goddess 
Mahamai  who  is  enshrined  here.  The  people  believe  that 
the  goddess  is  bad-tempered  and  devours  those  who  live  near 
her  siirine. 


264  CUAMl'A     ZAMINDARI — CHHUKI    VILLAGE. 

Champa  Zamindari. — See  ZamincJaris. 

Champa  Village — Tlie  headquarters  of  the  Champa 
zamindari  of  the  Janjgir  tahsil,  and  the  next  railway  station 
to  Nail  a  towards  Calcutta,  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Hasdo  river.  Its  area  is  4000  acres  and  the  population  was 
4300  persons  in  1901  as  against  3900  in  1891.  The  village 
has  a  considerable  trade  in  grain,  tasar  silk,  and  lac  ;  and 
weekly  markets  are  held  on  Mondays  and  Thursdays.  A 
station  of  the  American  Mcnnonite  Mission  has  been  opened 
here  and  supports  a  leper  asylum.  The  village  has  a  verna- 
cular middle  school  and  a  girls'  school  and  an  inspection  hut. 

Chhuri  Zamindari. — See  Zamlndaris. 

Chhuri  Village. — The  headquarters  of  the  Chhuri 
zamindari  of  the  Janjgir  tahsil,  situated  about  50  miles  from 
Bilaspur  vid  Ratanpur,  Pali  and  Chaitma.  It  had  a  popu- 
lation of  more  than  2100  persons  in  1901  as  against 
1700  in  1 89 1,  About  6  miles  from  the  village  is  an 
eminence  of  2000  feet  known  as  the  hill  of  Kosgain  Devi. 
On  the  top  of  this  is  a  fort  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall 
and  within  is  a  small  watch  house.  It  is  said  that  this  was 
once  the  residence  of  Dama  Dhurwa  Gond,  a  notorious  robber. 
He  was  killed  by  a  gatekeeper  of  Ratanpur  fort,  who  obtained 
as  his  reward  a  grant  of  the  present  Chhuri  zamindari  and 
founded  the  family.  This  place  was  also  the  site  of  a  battle 
between  Baharsai,  Haihaya  king  of  Ratanpur,  and  the 
Pathans  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  king  left  a  record  of 
his  victory  on  a  stone  which  is  now  kept  in  the  Nagpur 
Museum.  In  the  fort  are  some  sculptures  of  considerable 
beauty  representing  the  five  Pandava  brothers.  There  is  a 
little  shrine  of  the  Kosgain  Devi  ;  Kosgain  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  virgin  who  was  turned  into  stone.  A  small  fair 
is  held  here  on  the  day  of  Dasahra,  at  which  the  zamlndar 
slaughters  a  buffalo.  Some  hundred  or  more  goats  are  also 
sacrificed  and  their  blood  is  poured  into  a  small  stone 
cistern  in  front  of  Devi's  shrine,  which  is  said  never  to 
get    full.       Wild   plantains  grow    on    the    hill.     Chhuri  has 


DHANPUR.  265 

a  police   Station-house,  a  branch   post    office    and  a  primary 
school. 

Dhanpur. — A  village  in  the  Pendra  zamindari  about 
five  miles  north  of  Pendra  with  a  population  of  about  300 
persons  in  1901.  Dhanpur  was  formerly  an  important  place 
and  the  ruins  and  debris  of  old  buildings  are  found  over 
nearly  four  square  miles  of  ground  ;  but  the  great  mass  of 
them  are  compressed  within  an  area  of  nearly  half  a  square 
mile  There  is  a  local  story  to  the  effect  that  Dhanpur  and 
Ratanpur  were  built  simultaneously  by  the  Haihaya  Rajputs 
and  they  decided  to  choose  as  their  capital  the  place  in  which 
a  lamp  should  become  alight  of  its  own  accord.  The  miracle 
happened  in  Ratanpur,  which  was  accordingly  selected  as 
the  capital.  Tlie  principal  feature  of  the  place  is  the 
great  tank  known  as  Bhauntara,  near  v/hich  are  several 
fragments  of  sculpture  Half  a  mile  to  the  north  of  the  tank 
are  several  low  mounds  covered  by  the  remains  of  buildings 
and  surrounded  by  scrub  forest.  The  first  group  consists 
of  six  temples  ;  and  half  a  mile  to  llie  west  of  this  is  another 
block  of  four  ruined  temples  with  several  smaller  detached 
or  isolated  shrines  close  by.  To  the  north  of  these  is  a 
long  chain  of  tanks,  and  on  the  low  rugged  hillocks  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  tank  is  a  mound  of  ruins, 
consisting  of  a  group  of  four  large  temples  apparently 
Jain.  Not  far  from  these  is  another  tank  known  as 
Sobhanatha,  on  the  bank  of  which  are  collected  numerous 
Jain  fragments  of  statuary.  Some  of  the  temples  are  built 
of  stone  and  others  of  brick  and  stone,  the  bricks  being  of 
the  same  very  large  and  old  kind  as  are  found  at  Sirpur. 
Another  curious  relic  is  a  huge  figure  of  a  Jain  naked 
god  carved  out  of  a  large  cylindrical  rock.  This  is  known 
as  Benibai  or  Kapupat  and  the  people  believe  that  treasure  is 
buried  under  it.  One  of  the  chain  of  tanks  referred  to  above 
Is  called  Bhauntara  and  it  is  said  that  formerly  it  washed  up 
cooking  vessels  for  travellers,  with  which  they  could  cook 
their  evening   meal.     But    a  covetous  Brahman  once  tried  to 

MM 


266  GANIARI — (iHUTKU. 

make  ofT  with  the  vessels  and  the  water  of  the  tank  ran  after 
him  for  two  miles  and  snatched  back  the  vessels,  and  since 
then  the  miracle  has  ceased  to  happen,  A  drain  which  leads 
from  the  tank  is  pointed  out  as  the  track  by  which  the 
water  ran  after  the  Brahman.  Another  tank  is  known 
as  Bamanmara,  and  it  is  said  that  some  Brahman  traders 
were  travelling  through  Pendrii  carrying  a  quantity  of  fine 
Dacca  muslin  secreted  in  bamboo  tubes.  The  zamlndar  hear- 
ing of  this  sent  men  to  seize  the  muslin  when  the  Brahmans 
leapt  into  the  tank  to  escape  from  them,  and  were  drowned. 
Dhanpur  was  apparently  the  capital  of  the  Komo  chiefs. 

Ganiari.— A  large  village  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsTl,  I2 
miles  north  of  Bilaspur,  Its  area  is  nearly  1900  acres  and 
the  population  was  2350  persons  in  1901  as  against  2050 
in  1 89 1.  The  village  has  about  fifteen  tanks  and  ponds  from 
which  a  considerable  area  can  be  irrigated,  and  a  large 
weekly  cattle  market  is  held  here  on  Thursdays  and  Fridays. 
Ganiari  is  held  free  of  revenue  in  perpetuity  by  an  old  priestly 
family,  now  represented  by  Janardan  Shastri  and  his  three 
cousins.  The  family  are  prosperous  and  have  several  other 
villao-es.  The  village  has  a  vernacular  middle  school,  a  girls' 
school  and  a  branch  post  office, 

Gatora.  — A  large  village  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil  about 
6  miles  east  of  Bilaspur.  Its  area  is  4500  acres  and  the 
population  was  just  over  1900  persons  both  in  1901  and 
1891.  A  number  of  statues  are  found  here  carefully  executed 
and  finished  in  black  stone.  The  village  has  several 
tanks  from  which  a  considerable  area  can  be  irrigated.  It 
contains  a  primary  school.  The  proprietors  are  a  Chattls- 
garhi  Brahman  family. 

Ghutku.— A  large  and  flourishing  village  in  the  Bilas- 
pur tahsil,  and  the  first  railway  station  from  Bilaspur  on  the 
Katnl  line,  Its  area  is  3700  acres  and  the  population  was 
2000  persons  in  1901  as  against  1800  in  1891.  The  Arpa 
river  forms  its  eastern  boundary.  The  village  has  a  number 
of  tanks  from  which  a  considerable  area  can  be  irrigated  and 


HANP    RIVF.R — JANJGIR    TAHSIL.  26/ 

much  sugarcane  is  grown.  There  are  also  some  tine  mango 
groves.  It  has  a  primary  school  and  a  weekly  market  is  held 
on  Sundays.  Tlie  proprietor  is  a  Bania,  a  relative  of  the 
Tarenga  taliutdari  family. 

Hanp  River.— This  stream  rises  in  the  hills  of  the 
Pandai'ia  zamindari  near  the  border  of  the  Mandla  District  and 
forms  for  some  distance  the  boundary  between  the  Pandaria 
zamindari  and  the  Kawardha  State.  It  passes  Pandaria 
and  then  divides  that  zamindari  from  the  Mungeli  tahsll.  After 
traversing  the  Mungeli  tahsll  to  the  south  the  Hanp  enters 
the  Bemetara  tahsll  of  Drug  District  and  joins  the  .Seonath 
near  Tarpongi  about  three  miles  west  of  Nandghat.  The 
Sakri  meets  the  Hanp  near  Rismali.  The  total  length  of  the 
river  is  about  80  miles. 

Hasdo  River. — A  stream  which  rises  in  Surguja  terri- 
tory and  after  a  picturesque  career  through  the  rocky  gorges  of 
Matin  and  Uprora  zamindaris  emerges  into  the  plains  of 
Korba  and  Champa,  until  it  joins  the  Mahanadi  8  miles  east 
of  Seorlnarayan.  The  villages  of  Korba  and  Champa  are 
situated  on  its  banks  and  at  the  latter  place  it  is  crossed  by 
the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  current  of  the  Hasdo  is 
swift  and  its  bed  is  defective  and  full  of  quick  sands  so  that 
in  all  seasons  it  is  necessary  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  regular 
crossings. 

Janjgir  Tahsil.  —  The    eastern    tahsll    of   the    District 
lying    between    21^  ij  '   and  22^   50' 

DesciiptioD. 

•  N.    and    82^  25  '  and  ^f  40  '    E.     In 

1 90 1  its  area  was  1467  square  miles.  In  1905  an  area  of 
335  square  miles  consisting  mainly  of  the  Chandarpur, 
Padampur  and  Malkharoda  estates  were  transferred  from  the 
Sambalpur  District  to  this  tahsil.  On  the  formation  of  the 
new  Drug  District  in  1906  the  constitution  of  the  tahsll  was 
considerably  altered.  A  tract  lying  south  of  the  Mahanadi 
and  containing  the  Bilaigarh-Katgi  and  Bhatgaun  zamin- 
daris, the  Sonakhan  estate  and  the  Sarsiwa  group  of  villages 
was  transferred  to  the  Baloda  Bazar   tahsil   of  the   Raipur 


2C8  JANJ(.IK    TAHSIl.. 

District,  while  tlie  tliree  noi  tliern  zaniindaris  of  Korba,  Chhuri 
and    Uprorii,  together  witli  79  square  miles  of  khaha  around 
Baloda,  were  transferred  from    the    Bilaspur   to    this  tahsil. 
The    revised    area    of    the     tahsil     is    3039    square    miles 
or  40  per  cent,  of  that   of  the   District.     The  tahsil   is  the 
first  of  the  three   tahslls  of  the  District  in  population  and 
the  second  in  size.      It  contains  only  3  square  miles  of  Govern- 
ment forest.     It  includes  the  zamlndari  estates  of  Champa, 
Korba,  Chhuri   and  Uprora  with  a  total  area  of  208  i  square 
miles  of  which  700  are  under  forest.     The  tahsil  is   bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Surguja  Feudatory  State,  on  the  east  by 
the  Bengal  Presidency  (Sambalpur)   and  the  Raigarh,  Sakti 
and   Udaipur  States,  on  the  south  by  the    Raipur  District, 
Sarangarh  State,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Bilaspur  tahsil. 
The  headquarters    of  the    tahsil  are    situated    at    Janjgir,    a 
village  of  2257    inhabitants  adjoining  Naila  station   on  the 
railway  line,    26  miles  east  of  Bilaspur.     The  klialsa  portion 
of  the  tahsil  consists  almost  entirely  of  an  open  plain  covered 
with  yellow  clay  soil  and  closely   cropped  with  rice,   v.'hile 
the  northern  zaniindaris   lie  among  thickly  wooded  hills  and 
plateaux,  the  Uprora   zamindari   being  the    wildest   tract  in 
Chhattisgarh.     The  only  rivers  and  streams  of  any  importance 
are  the   Hasdo  which  runs  through  the  tahsil  from  north  to 
south,  meeting  the  Mahanadi  at  Deori  (it  becomes  very  for- 
midable during  the  rains  and  on  account  of  its  quicksands  is 
very  dangerous  at  all  seasons) ;  the  Kanji  nullah,  which  runs 
through  the  centre  of  the  tahsil  ;  the  Son  which  rising  from  the 
Korba  hills  intersects  the  villages  lying  to  the  east  of  the 
Hasdo;  the  Borai ;  the  Mand  which  forms    the  boundary  be- 
tween the  District  and  Udaipur  State  and  after  many  miles  in 
Native  States  again  enters  the  District  at  the  corner  of  Chan- 
darpur  to  join  the  Mahanadi;  the  Kelo  which  flows  through 
Padampur  for  3  or  4  miles  before  joining  the  Mahanadi.     All 
these  streams  fall  into  the  Mahanadi  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary    of  the  tahsil.     The  Mahanadi  and  Hasdo  are  the 
only  streams  in  whose  beds  much  cultivation  is  carried  on. 


JANJGIR    TAHSIL.  269 

The  population   of  the  tahsil  in    1901  was  418,209  per- 
sons  or    46  per    cent,  of   tliat    of   the 

Population. 

District.     The  population   in  1891  was 

451,024  and  the  decrease  during  the  decade  was  7'3  per 
cent,  as  against  a  decrease  of  12*2  per  cent,  for  the  whole 
District.  The  tahsil  is  more  thickly  populated  than  either 
of  the  other  two  tahslls,  the  density  being  1 38  persons  per 
square  mile  as  against  103  in  the  Bilaspur  and  122  in  the 
Mungeli  tahsil.  The  tahsil  contains  1381  villages  of  which 
50  are  uninhabited.  There  is  no  town  but  the  following 
eight  villages  contained  over  2000  persons  in  1901  : — Akal- 
tara  (2139),  Janjgir  (2257),  Nawagarh  (2054),  Salkhan 
(2387),  Baloda  (2603),  Chhuri  Kalan  (2 141),  Champa  (4315) 
and  Bamnidih  (2746).  There  are  also  52  villages  con- 
taining between  1000  and  2000  persons. 

The  soils  of  the  tahsil  resemble  those   of  the  District 
generally  as  classified  in  the  chapter  on 

Agriculture. 

Agriculture.     Of  the  whole  area  three 
square  miles  are  included  in  Government  forests,  700  square 
miles  consist  of  zamlndari  forest  and  256  square  miles  of  the 
malguzari  area  are  taken  up  by  private   forests,    scrub  jungle 
and  grass..    Of  the  malguzari  village  area  of    1258   square 
miles,  a  proportion  of  ^^  per  cent,    was  occupied  for  cultiva- 
tion in    1907-08  while   the  proportion  of  occupied  area    in 
the   zamindaris  was    only   '^o  per    cent.      In    1907-08    the 
cultivated  area  was  767,628   acres  and  the  net  cropped  area 
668,108  acres  ;  rice   covered  an  area  of  566,326  acres  or  80 
percent.,  linseed  16,631  acres  or  2  per  cent.,    urad,  mung  and 
moth  32,108  acres   or  4  per  cent.,  wheat  5879  acres   or    i 
per  cent.,  kodon-kutkl  52,691  or  7  per  cent.,  til  16,417  acres 
or  2  per  cent,  and  tiura  9723  acres  or   i    per  cent.     The 
double-cropped  area  was  33,319  acres.     In  1906-07  an  area 
of  3808    acres  was    under  irrigation    but  the   figure  rose    to 
84,783     acres     in    1907-08.       The    statistics      of    cropping 
during  the  years   1905-06,  1906-07  and  1907-08  are   shown 
on  the  next  page. 


2/0 


JANJGIR    TAMSIL. 


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JANJGIR    VILLAGE,  2/1 

In  1907-08  the  demand  for  land  revenue  in  the  malgu- 
zari    area  was    Rs.    1,35,192   and   for 

Land  Revenue.  t-.         o^r  t^i        i       j 

cesses   Rs.   8603.     The  land  revenue 

fell  at   R.  0-3-4  per  cultivated  acre.     The  demand  for  takoli 

in  the  zamlndaris  was  Rs.  15,089  and  for  cesses   Rs.    16S6. 

A  fresh  settlement  is  now  being  made. 

The  tahsll  is  divided  into    8  Revenue  Inspectors'  circles 

(with   headquarters  at   Akaltara,  Dhar- 
Miscellaneous.  ,,.         „_,  t---  tt         j 

dehi,      Baraduar,      Jaijaipur,      Hasod, 

Chhuri,  Korba  and  Chandarpur)  and  168  patwaris'  circles.     It 

has  4  police  Station-houses  at  Janjgir,  Seorlnarayan,  Korba 

and  Chandarpur  with  twelve    outposts  subordinate  to   them, 

viz.,  Jaijaipur,  Champa,  Baloda,  Ramgarh,  Baraduar,  Dabhra, 

Padampur,  Rampur,  Chhuri,  Chaitma,    Uprora  (Pondi),  and 

Matin.     Of  these  Matin  lies  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil. 

Janjgir  Village. — The  headquarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the 

same  name  situated  two  miles  from  Naila  station.    The  tahsll 

headquarters  were  formerly  at  Seorlnarayan,  on  the  Mahanadi 

away  from  the  railway  line.  In  1885  the  buildings  and  records 

there  were  damaged  by   a  great  flood  of  the  river,  and  they 

were  consequently  removed  to  Janjgir  in  1891.     The  area  of 

the   village   is   3600  acres    and  the    population    was    2250 

persons  in    1901    as    against    1800  in    1891.      The   village 

contains   two  temples  richly  decorated  with  carvings.     The 

more  important  of  the  two    stands  on  a  high  basement  to  the 

east  of  the  houses,  and   consists  of  a  shrine   facing  the    east 

whose  exterior  walls  are  covered  with  sculptures.    There  are 

two  principal  tiers  of  images  round   the  sides,   almost  all  of 

them  being    Vaishnava  figures  such  as    Varaha,  Narsinha 

and  Brahma,  while  the  corners  are  filled  with  images  of  Devi, 

of   girls    playing  music   and  dancing,  and  of   ascetics   and 

griffins.     On  the  back  or   west  wall,  Surya  has  the   place  of 

honour  in   the  principal   niche.     Above  the  doorway  of  the 

shrine  are  carved   the   Hindu   trinity,    Brahma,    Vishnu   and 

Siva,  Vishnu  being  in  the  centre,  while  between  them  are  the 

nine    planets.      The    shrine    is    empty    and    as    it    was   left 


272  KANTEM    ZAMINDARI  — KHAROD. 

unfinished  il  probably  never  had  an  image,  but  it  was 
certainly  a  Vaishnava  building.  It  is  said  that  the  builders 
of  this  temple  and  the  highly  ornate  temple  of  Siva  at  Pali 
held  a  competition  as  to  vv^iu'ch  should  be  finished  first,  and 
vvlien  the  Pali  building  was  completed  the  Janjgir  temple 
was  stopped.  The  smaller  temple  is  complete  and  is  also 
profusely  decorated  with  sculptures.  The  derivation  of  the 
name  Janjgir  is  doubtful,  but  Mr.  Hira  Lai  considers  that  it 
may  be  a  corruption  of  Jajalla  Nagari  or  the  town  founded  by 
Jfijalladeva,  King  of  Ratanpur. 

The  village  has  very  little  trade  but  some  tasar-silk  cloth 
is  woven.  The  large  Bhima  tank  is  said  to  have  been 
constructed  about  800  years  ago  by  a  Raja  of  the  Haihaya- 
vansl  dynasty,  and  to  have  very  pure  drinking  water.  The 
village  contains  a  vernacular  middle  school,  a  post  office,^ 
inspection  and  dak  bungalows  and  a  dispensary.  Telegrams 
are  sent  from  Naila  station.  A  station  of  the  American 
Mennonite  Mission  has  been  located  in  Janjgir,  and  two 
European  Missionaries  live  here.  The  proprietor  is  a  Maratha 
Brahman  who  has  about  six  other  villages. 

Kanteli  Zamindari, — See  Zamlndaris. 

Kenda  Za  ^  indari. —  Do. 

Kharod.-^A  large  village  situated  about  2  miles  from 
Seorinarayan  on  the  Akaltara  road,  and  a  mile  from  the 
Mahanadi  river.  It  is  divided  into  five  paras  or  quarters, 
which  are  now  considered  as  separate  villages.  Kharod  has 
some  old  temples,  of  which  that  of  Lakhmeshwar  is  the 
largest  and  most  important.  It  is  still  used  and  contains  an 
old  inscription  dated  in  Chedi  Samvat  933  or  1181  A.D.  The 
inscription  contains  a  complete  list  of  the  Haihaya  kings  from 
Kalingaraja  to  Ratnadeva  III.  It  mentions  the  construction 
of  a  shrine  of  Siva  at  Kharod  and  a  residence  for  monks,  and 
of  other  temples,  gardens,  alms-houses,  and  tanks.  A  second 
inscription  in  Kutil  characters  opposite  to  this  one  was 
formerly  plastered  over,  and  is  so  mutilated  that  it  cannot  be 
deciphered.     The  characters    belong  to   the   eighth  century. 


KOREA  ZAMINDARI KOTGARH.  2/3 

The  temple  to  the  south  of  the  village  iti  dedicated  to 
SavaridevI  and  is  built  of  brick,  being  of  the  same  age  and 
practically  copied  from  the  temple  of  Lakshmana  at  Sirpur. 
The  temples  have  been  repaired  by  Government.  Beyond 
and  to  the  north  of  the  village  are  the  remains  of  a  group  of 
small  temples,  the  entrances  of  which  have  been  decorated 
with  some  fine  sculptures.  A  small  religious  fair  is  held  at 
Kharod  on  the  festival  of  Shivratri.  The  village  has  many 
old  tanks,  from  which  a  large  area  can  be  irrigated.  It  has 
a  vernacular  middle  school  and  a  weekly  market  is  held  on 
Saturdays.  The  five  quarters  are  separately  owned  by 
Brahman  families. 

Korba  Zamindari. — See  Zamindaria. 

Kota. — ^A  village  in  the  Kenda  zamindari  o(  the  Bilas- 
pur  tahsil,  and  the  second  railway  station  on  the  Katni 
branch  line  from  Bilaspur.  A  match  factory  was  opened 
here  in  1902  by  one  Amrit  Lai,  a  railway  contractor.  The 
place  was  selected  because  the  neighbouring  forests  afford  an 
abundance  of  light  wood  of  the  saL'/i  {Boszirel/ia  serrata)  and 
semar  {Bombax  nialabanc7un)  trees  which  are  suitable  for 
the  manufacture  of  matches.  The  population  of  Kota  was 
nearly  1400  persons  in  1901.  It  contains  a  primary  school, 
a  branch  post  office,  and  a  police  Station-house.  An  inspec- 
tion bungalow  has  been  erected. 

Kotgarh. — An  old  fort  sUuated  in  the  village  of  Bar- 
gawan,  about  three  miles  noi'th  of  Akaltara  on  the  Baloda 
road.  Ihe  fort  has  two  gates  on  the  east  and  west,  of  which 
the  western  one  is  still  standing  and  has  fretted  arches.  On 
the  eastern  gate  is  a  figure  of  the  goddess  Mahamai  and  a 
local  legend  states  that  a  human  sacrifice  was  offered  here  by 
the  owner  of  the  fort  for  the  prevention  of  cholera,  but  when 
the  disease  did  not  abate  he  mutilated  the  image  of  the 
goddess  in  revenge  for  her  non-compliance  with  his  prayers. 
Within  the  foit  are  the  remains  of  some  sculptured  temples 
and  several  inscriptions  were  discovered  here,,  but  they  have 
been  removed  to  Akaltara  and  elsewhere. 

NN 


2/4  KOTMI  —  LAPHAGARH. 

Kotmi  (from  kot,  a  rampart). — A  large  village  in  the 
Janjgir  tahsil  about  12  miles  east  of  Bilaspur  on  the  Liiagar 
river.  Its  area  is  3500  acres  and  the  population  was  1650 
persons  in  1901  as  against  2100  in  1891.  There  is  an 
old  mud  fort  here  surrounded  by  a  large  moat  which  has  been 
turned  into  a  tank.  The  village  has  also  several  other  tanks, 
giving  a  considerable  irrigated  area  and  much  sugarcane 
is  grown.  A  cattle-market  is  held  on  Tuesdays.  The  village 
has  a  primary  school.  The  proprietors  are  a  Sonar  family, 
relatives  of  the  malguzars  of  Baloda. 

Kudarmal. — A  village  in  the  Korba  zamlndari  of  the 
Janjgir  tahsil,  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Hasdo 
river  about  17  miles  north  of  Champa  station,  with  a 
population  of  700  persons.  Kudarmal  contains  the  grave  of 
Churaman,  son  of  Dharamdas,  who  was  a  disciple  of  Kablr 
and  the  first  Mahant  of  the  Kabh-panthI  sect.  A  Kabirpanthi 
fair  is  held  here  in  the  month  of  Magh  lasting  for  seven  or 
eight  days,  at  which  converts  are  initiated  as  members  of 
the  sect.  One  of  the  Maiiants,  Ugranilm  Sahib,  also  lived  at 
Kudarmal  for  a  considerable  time. 

Lapha  Zamindari. — See  Zamindaris. 

Laphagarh. — A  large  hill  also  known  as  Chittorgarh  is 
in  the  Lapha  zamindari,  about  30  miles  north  of  Bilaspur  in 
the  Bilaspur  tahsil.  Its  elevation  is  3240  feet  and  on  the 
summit  is  an  old  fort  with  three  gateways.  The  walls  of 
the  fort  are  irregular  following  the  edge  of  tlie  plateau.  In 
some  places  the  walls  are  of  cut  stone  and  in  others  of  rubble. 
The  gateways  have  been  elaborately  decorated  with  pillars 
and  statues.  Close  to  the  Singhduara  gate  is  a  temple  built 
of  cut  stone  in  a  very  plain  style  like  the  temples  at  Waira- 
garh.  In  the  shrine  is  a-  broken  statue  of  Mahamaya  or 
Devi.  The  people  say  that  a  European  entered  the  temple 
and  that  the  statue  was  broken  in  consequence  of  this  ;  and 
they  believe  that  the  European  afterwards  died.  Near  the 
Menukil  gate  there  is  a  natural  cave,  and  in  it  a  small  linga' 
The  zamindar   of  Lapha  resides   here  during   the  month  of 


LILAGAR    RIVER — MAHANADI    RIVER.  275 

Shrawan  (July)  and  worships  in  the  cave,  and  after  tliis  he 
celebrates  the  Kajalia  festival,  to  which  people  from  all  parts 
of  the  zamlndari  are  invited.  A  former  Deputy  Commissioner, 
Colonel  Vertue,  built  a  bungalow  on  the  hill  and  resided 
in  it  during  a  part  of  the  hot  weather,  but  the  bungalow  has 
now  been  burnt  down.  There  are  four  tanks  on  the  summit, 
of  which  two  contain  water  all  the  year  round.  The  river 
Jatashankari  rises  here,  and  there  are  a  number  of  caves, 
while  the  scenery  in  the  vicinity  is  very  picturesque.  At 
the   base  of  the  hill  is  a  tract  of  dense  forest. 

The  village  of  Tartuma  or  LSpha,  which  is  the  zamin- 
dari  headquarters,  lies  below  the  hill.  It  has  a  popula- 
tion of  nearly  700  persons. 

Lilagar  River. — This  stream  rises  in  the  Korba  zamln- 
dari and  flows  to  the  south  separating  the  Bilaspur  and 
Janjgir  tahsTls,  until  it  joins  the  Seonath  near  Boigaon.  The 
Lilagar  is  crossed  by  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  near  Kotmi. 

Mahamadpur. — A  small  village  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil, 
two  miles  north  of  Akaltara  on  the  Baloda  road.  It  contains 
a  large  tank  with  a  stone  embankment,  and  several  pieces  of 
statuary,  including  some  fine  carvings,  have  been  collected 
here.  An  inscription  of  the  Kalachuri  rulers  of  Ratanpur 
containing  the  names  of  Jajalladeva,  Ratnadeva,  Prithvldeva 
and  Vallabharaj  was  discovered  in  the  village. 

Mahanadi  River^  (The  great  river). — A  great  river 
in  the  Central  Provinces  and  Bengal,  with  a  total  course  of  550 
miles,  about  half  of  which  lies  within  the  Central  Provinces. 
The  drainage  area  of  the  Mahanadi  is  estimated  at  about 
43,800  square  miles,  of  which  about  27,000  square  miles  are 
in  the  Central  Provinces.  Owing  to  the  rapidity  of  its  current 
its  maximum  discharge  in  flood  time  near  its  mouth  is  estirn- 
ated  to  be  nearly  2  million  cubic  feet  a  second,  or  as  great  as 
that  of  the  Ganges  ;  in  dry  weather,  however,  the  discharge 
dwindles  to  T125  cubic  feet  a  second,  while  the  least  dis- 
charge of  the  Ganges  is  estimated  at  45 ,000  cubic  feet.  During 

I.  Reprinted   from  the  article  in  the  Imperial  Gazetteer. 


276  MAHANADI    RIVER. 

eight  months  of  the  year  the  river  is  nothing  more  than  a  narrow 
and  sliallovv  channel  winding  through  a  vast  expanse  of  sand. 
It  rises  in  an  insignificant  pool,  a  few  miles  from  the 
village  of  Sihawa  in  the  extreme  south-east  of  the  Raipur 
District  (20''  9'  N.  and  8°  58'  E.).  In  the  first  part  of  its  course 
it  flows  to  the  north,  drains  the  eastern  portion  of  Raipur,  its 
valley  during  the  first  50  miles  being  not  more  than  500  or  600 
yards  broad.  A  little  above  Seorlnarayan  on  touching  the 
boundary  of  the  Bilaspur  District  it  receives  the  waters  of  its 
first  great  affluent  the  Seonath,  which  in  the  Raipur  District  is 
a  much  more  important  river  than  the  Mahanadi.  The  river 
flows  in  an  easterly  direction  through  Bilaspur,  its  principal 
tributaries  being  the  Jonk  and  Hasdo.  It  then  enters  Sambalpur 
and  turning  south  at  the  town  of  Padampur  flows  south  and 
south-east  through  the  Sambalpur  District.  Its  atlfluents  here 
are  tlie  lb,  Ongand  Tel,  and  numerous  minor  streams.  In 
Sambalpur  it  has  already  become  a  river  of  the  first  magnitude 
with  a  width  of  more  than  a  mile  in  flood  time,  when  it  pours 
down  a  sheet  of  muddy  water  overflowing  its  submerged 
banks,  carrying  with  it  the  boughs  and  trunks  of  trees,  and 
occasionally  the  corpses  of  men  and  animals  which  it'  has 
swept  away.  From  Sambalpur  a  magnificent  view  is  obtained 
for  several  miles  up  and  down  the  river,  the  breadth  being 
almost  doubled  at  the  centre  of  a  large  curve  below  the  town- 
The  Mahanadi  subsequently  forms  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  Tributary  State  of  Baud  in  Orissa,  and  forces  its 
tortuous  way  through  the  Orissa  Tributary  States,  between 
ridges  and  ledges,  in  a  series  of  rapids,  until  it  reaches  Dhol- 
pur.  Boats  shoot  these  rapids  at  a  great  pace,  and  on  their 
return  journey  are  dragged  up  with  immense  labour  from  the 
bank.  During  the  rainy  season  the  water  covers  the  rocks, 
and  suffices  to  float  down  huge  rafts  of  timber.  At  Uholpur 
the  rapids  end,  and  the  river  rolls  its  unrestrained  waters 
straight  for  the  outermost  line  of  the  Eastern  Ghats.  This 
mountain  line  is  pierced  by  a  gorge  40  miles  in  length,  over- 
looked  by    hills    and   shaded  forests   on    either  side.     The 


MAHANADI    RIVER.  2/7 

Mahanadi  finally  leaves  the  Tributary  States,  and  pours  down 
upon  the  Orissa  delta  from  between  two  hills  a  mile  apart  at 
Naraj,  about  7  miles  west  of  the  town  of  Cuttack.  It 
traverses  Cuttack  District  from  west  to  east,  and  throwing  off 
numerous  branches  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  by  several 
channels,  near  False  Point  in  20^  18'  N.  and  86^  43'  E. 

On  the  right  or  south  bank,  soon  after  entering  the 
Cuttack  District,  it  gives  off  a  large  stream,  the  Katjurf,  the 
town  of  Cuttack  being  built  upon  the  spit  which  separates  the 
two  rivers.  The  Katjurl  immediately  divides  into  two,  of 
which  the  southern  branch,  under  the  name  of  the  Koyakhai, 
passes  into  Purl  District ;  and  shortly  afterwards  throws  off 
the  Surua,  which  re-unites  with  the  parent  streams  after  a 
course  of  a  few  miles.  A  little  lower  down  the  Katjurl 
throws  off  two  minor  distributaries  from  its  right  bank,  the 
Great  and  Little  Devi  which  unite  after  a  southerly  course  of 
about  20  miles ;  and,  under  the  name  of  the  Devi,  the  com- 
bined stream  passes  into  Purl  District  and  falls  into  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  a  few  miles  below  the  southern  boundary  of  Cut- 
tack. The  Katjurl  ultimately  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
under  the  name  of  the  Jotdar.  The  other  important  southern 
distributary  of  the  Mahanadi  is  the  Paika,  which  branches  off 
from  the  parent  stream  10  miles  below  Cuttack  town,  and 
rejoins  it  after  a  course  of  about  12  miles.  It  again  branches 
off  from  the  northern  bank,  and  running  in  a  loop  joins  the 
Mahanadi  finally  at  Tikri,  opposite  Taldanda.  The  offshoots 
from  the  left  or  north  bank  of  the  Mahanadi  are  the  Birupa 
and  the  Chitartala.  The  Birupa  takes  off  opposite  the  town 
of  Cuttack,  and,  after  flowing  in  a  north-easterly  direction 
for  about  15  miles,  throws  off  the  Genguti  from  its  left  bank. 
This  stream  after  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Kelo  again  falls 
into  the  Birupa.  The  latter  river  afterwards  joins  the  Brah- 
manl  and  its  waters  ultimately  find  their  way  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  by  the  Dhamra  estuary.  The  Chitartala  branch 
leaves  the  parent  stream  about  10  miles  below  the  Birijpa 
mouth,    and    soon  bifurcates  into  the  Chit.irtala  and  the  Niin. 


2'^8  MAIKAL    HILL. 

These  streams  unite,  after  a  course  of  about  20  miles,  and, 
under  the  name  of  the  Nun,  the  united  waters  fall  into  the 
Mahanadi  estuary  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  and  so  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

In  the  upper  parts  of  its  course  the  bed  is  open  and 
sandy,  with  banks  usually  low,  bare  and  unattractive.  After 
entering  Sambalpur  its  course  is  broken  in  several  places  by 
rocks  through  which  the  river  forms  rapids,  which  are  dan- 
gerous to  navigation.  Boats  can,  however,  ascend  the  Maha- 
nadi from  its  mouth  as  far  as  Arang  in  the  Raipur  District, 
about  120  miles  from  its  source.  Before  the  construction  of 
the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  the  Mahanadi  was  the  main 
outlet  for  the  produce  for  the  Sambalpur  District,  which  was 
carried  in  boats  to  Cuttack ;  salt,  cloth  and  other  commodities 
being  brought  back  in  exchange.  The  through  traffic  has 
now,  however,  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  railway, 
and  there  remains  only  a  small  amount  of  local  trade  between 
Sambalpur  and  Sonpur. 

No  use  has  hitherto  been  made  of  the  waters  of  the 
Mahanadi  for  irrigation  in  the  Central  Provinces,  but  a  pro- 
ject for  a  canal  in  the  Raipur  District  is  under  consideration. 
Efforts  have  been  made  to  husband  and  utilise  the  vast  water- 
supply  thus  thrown  down  on  the  Orissa  delta,  and  an  ela- 
borate system  of  canals,  known  as  the  Orissa  Canals,  has 
been  constructed  to  regulate  the  water-suppl}'  for  irrigation, 
and  to  utilise  it  for  navigation  and  commerce.  Large  sums 
have  also  been  spent  on  embankments  to  protect  the  delta 
from  inundation  of  the  floods  which  pour  down  the  Mahanadi 
and  its  distributaries.  A  pontoon  bridge  is  constructed 
across  it  in  the  dry  season  at  Sambalpur  and  the  Bengal- 
Nagpur  Railway  crosses  it  by  a  bridge  at  Cuttack. 

Maikal>  Hill  (or  Mekald). — A  range  of  hills  in  the 
Central  Provinces  and  Central  India,  lying  between  21°  1 1'  and 
22^40'  N.  and  80'' 46'  and  81'  46'  E.  It  is  the  connecting 
link  between  the  great  hill  systems  of  Vindhyas  and  Satpuras, 

^  Reprinted  from  the  article  in  the  Imperial  Gazetteer. 


MAIKAL    HILL.  2^9 

forming  respectively  the  northern  and  southern  walls  of 
the  Nerbudda  valley.  Starting  in  the  Khairagarh  State  of 
the  Central  Provinces,  the  range  runs  in  a  general  south- 
easterly direction  for  the  first  46  miles  in  British  territory, 
crossing  the  Bilaspur  District  from  south-west  to  north-east 
along  the  border  and  then  entering  the  Sohagpur  pargana 
of  Rewah  State,  terminates  84  miles  further  at  Amarkantak, 
one  of  the  most  sacred  places  in  India,  where  the  source  of  the 
Nerbudda  river  is  situated.  Unlike  the  two  great  ranges 
which  it  connects,  the  Maikal  forms  a  broad  plateau  of  880 
square  miles  in  extent,  mostly  forest  country  inhabited  by 
Gonds.  The  elevation  of  the  range  does  not  ordinarily 
exceed  2000  feet,  but  the  Lapha  hill,  which  is  a  detached 
peak  belonging  to  it,  rises  to  3500  feet.  The  range  is  best 
known  for  the  magnificent  forests  of  sal  {Shorea  robusta) 
which  clothe  its  heights  in  many  places.  These  are  mainly 
situated  in  zamlndari  estates  or  those  of  Feudatory  chiefs 
and  hence  are  not  subject  to  any  strict  system  of  conserva- 
tion, and  have  been  much  damaged  by  indiscriminate  fellings. 
The  hills  are  mentioned  in  ancient  Hindu  literature  as  the 
place  of  Malkala  Rishi's  penance,  though  Vyasa,  Bhrigu, 
Agastya,  and  other  sages  are  also  credited  with  having  medi- 
tated in  the  forests.  Their  greatest  claim  to  sanctity  lies/ 
however,  in  the  presence  upon  them  of  the  sources  of  the 
Nerbudda  and  Son  rivers.  The  Markandeya  Purana  relates 
how,  when  Siva  called  successively  on  all  the  mountains  of 
India  to  find  a  home  for  the  Nerbudda,  only  Maikal  offered 
to  receive  her,  thus  gaining  undying  fame  ;  and  hence  the 
Nerbudda  is  often  called  Maikal-Kanya  or  '  daughter  of 
Maikal.'  The  Mahanadi  (Chhoti)  and  Johilla,  as  well  as  many 
minor, streams,  also  have  their  sources  in  these  hills.  Local 
tradition  relates  that  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  A.D. 
during  the  Gupta  rule,  this  plateau  was  highly  populated  ; 
and  the  Ramayana  and  the  Puranas  mention  the  Mekhalas 
as  a  tribe  of  the  Vindhya  range,  tiie  former  work  placing 
them    next  the   Utkalas  or   people  of  Orissa.      The   Rewah 


28o  MALLAK — MANIARI  RIVER. 

State  has  lately  begun  to  open  up  the  plateau.  Iron  ore  is 
met  with  in  some  quantity,  and  is  still  worked  at  about 
twenty  villages  to  supply  the  local  demand. 

Mallar  (Malhar). — A  large  village  in  the  Bilaspur 
lahsil,  1 6  miles  south-east  of  Bilaspur  and  near  the  Lilagar 
river.  Its  elevation  is  860  feet.  The  area  of  the  village  is 
3500  acres  and  the  population  was  2000  persons  in  1901, 
having  been  practically  stationary  during  the  preceding 
decade.  The  village  was  an  important  place  in  former  times 
and  contains  numerous  old  ruins  of  temples  and  some  large 
Jain  naked  figures.  Many  images  have  been  removed  but  a 
considerable  number  still  remain  scattered  over  the  ground. 
Several  inscriptions  have  been  found  here  and  one  of  them, 
referring  to  the  Kalachuri  kings  of  Ratanpur  with  the  date 
919  of  their  era  or  1 167  A.D.,  has  been  removed  to  the  Nagpur 
Museum.  There  is  a  mud  fort  surrounded  by  a  large  moat, 
which  affords  a  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  both  to  Mallar 
and  Budhikhar.  The  village  has  also  6;^  tanks,  large  and  small, 
several  of  which  are  in  good  order  and  can  be  used  for  irriga- 
tion. Mallar  has  a  primary  school,  and  a  weekly  market  is 
held  on  Wednesdays.  The  proprietor  was  Tikaram  Sao,  the 
richest  moneylender  of  the  District,  who  owned  more  than  40 
villages  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsll.  He  is  now  dead  and  the  pro-* 
perty  is  now  owned  jointly  by  his  nephews. 

Maniari  River. — This  stream  rises  in  the  Lormi  hills, 
and,  flowing  south  and  west  through  Lormi  past  the  villages 
of  l^ormi  and  Takhatpur,  separates  the  Bilaspur  and  Mungeli 
tahsils  for  a  considerable  distance.  After  a  circuitous  course 
of  about  70  miles  it  falls  into  the  Seonath  river  in  the 
Tarenga  estate  about  two  miles  from  Dighori.  The  Agar 
meets  the  Maniari  near  Kukusda  in  the  Mungeli  tahsil.  The 
Maniari  has  a  wide  straggling  bed,  but,  except  at  intervals  in 
the  rains,  contains  no  volume  of  water.  In  the  hot  and  cold 
weather  months  many  parts  of  its  channel  are  quite  dry, 
while  in  other  places  there  are  reaches  of  water,  which  are 
sometimes  utilised  for  irrigation. 


MANIKPUR — MUNGELI   TAHSIL.  28 1 

Manikpur.— A  small  village  in  the  Kenda  zamlndari  of 
the  Bilaspur  tahsll,  15  miles  north  of  Ratanpur.  On  a  hill 
near  the  village  are  situated  the  remains  of  tanks,  temples 
and  other  buildings. 

Matin  Zamindari.— See  Zamindaris. 

Mungeli  Tahsil— The  western  tahsll  of  the  District^ 
lying  between  21°  53'  and  22^  40'  N. 

Description. 

and  81^  12'  and  82^  6   E.    In  1901  its 
area  was  1794  square  miles  and  population  255,045  persons. 
At  the   beginning  of    1906   on   the  constitution  of  the  Drug 
District,  the  southern  part  of  the  tahsil  was  transferred  to  it. 
This  comprised  an  area  of  363  square  miles   containing  316 
villages   with  a  population  of  83,650   persons.     It  was  com- 
prised roughly  in  the  Nawagarh  and  Maro  Revenue  Inspec- 
tors' circles.     The  southern   boundary  of  the  tahsll  will  in 
future  be  an    imaginary  line  running  eastwards   from   the 
point  forming  the  tri-junction  of   the    Kawardha  State,  the. 
Pandaria   zamlndari    and    the   malguzari    area   of   Mungeli, 
to   a    point   on    the    river  Seonath  about    3    miles   west   of 
its   confluence   with    the    Maniari.     Another    minor   change 
is  the    transfer   of   an    area    of  21    square    miles    belonging 
to    Bilaspur    but  lying    west     of   the    Maniari    to    Mungeli. 
This  area  contains  23  villages    with  a  population  of  5712 
persons.     The  revised  area   and  population   of   Mungeli  are 
1452   square    miles    and   177,116    persons.     The    tahsll    is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Mandla  District,  on  the  south 
by  the    Drug   and   Raipur   Districts,     on    the    west   by     the 
Kawardha   State,  while  on  the  east  the  Maniari  river  divides 
it  from   Bilaspur.     It  consists  of  a  black  cotton   soil  tract  of 
small  villages  and  comparatively  large  fields,  without  striking 
natural    features.     The  Seonath  river,  which  bounds  it  for  a 
few  miles  on  the  south-east,  receives  the  drainage  of  practic- 
ally  the  whole  tahsil.    The  principal  streams  are  the  Maniari, 
with  its  tributaries,  the  Agar,  the  Rahan  and  the  Teswa,  and 
the  Hanp  and  Phonk  flowing   into  the  Sakri.     All  these  flow 
generally  from  north-west  to  south-east  and  their  waters  are 

00 


282  MUNGELI    TAIISIL. 

ultimately  carried  to  theSeonath.  Along  the  north  the  Maikal 
range  enters  the  tahsil  in  the  Pandaria  and  Lormi  estates  and 
there  are  large  tracts  of  forest,  amounting  to  1 18  square  miles 
in  the  zamindaris  and  446  of  the  Government  reserves.  But 
the  central  and  southern  area  contains  little  or  no  forest  and  is 
noticeably  bare  of  trees.  The  water-supply  of  many  villages 
is  also  bad,  and  in  the  hot  weather  Mungeli  is  one  of  the  most 
unpleasant  parts  of  the  Province  Ironi  a  touring  point  of  view. 
There  area  few  stretches  of  absolutely  level  land  such  as  liie 
black-soil  tract  round  Katholia  and  Kodwa,  and  the  plain 
south  and  south-east  of  Lormi.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  country'  is 
traversed  by  long  low  ridges  of  fairly  black  soil  interspersed 
with  limestone  nodules.  These  dift'er  widely  from  the  gravel 
ridges  found  in  the  east  and  south  of  the  District.  There  the 
village  nearly  always  stands  on  gravel  soil  on  the  top  of  a 
ridge.  But  most  of  the  Mungeli  villages  are  on  level  black 
soil,  and,  where  possible,  the  bank  of  a  stream  is  chosen  as 
the  site.  The  most  fertile  part  of  the  tahsil  lies  to  the  south- 
west towards  Kathotia,  where  there  are  level  fields  of  good 
black  soil.  The  centre  is  rendered  less  valuable  bj^  the  ridges 
of  rather  pebbly  black  soil  already  referred  to,  while  the 
least  valuable  villages  are  found  in  the  forests  of  the  north 
and  north-east,  and  along  the  Seonath  river,  where  poor 
sandy  alluvium  covers  a  large  area.  The  total  forest  area  is 
664  square  miles  or  46  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  tahsil. 

The  population  of  the  reconstituted   tahsil  in   1901  was 
177,1 15  persons  or  19  per  cent,  of  that 

Population. 

of  the  District.  Roughly  the  popula- 
tion has  been  reduced  by  about  a  third  b}'  the  recent  transfers. 
In  1891  the  population  of  the  present  area  was  248,740 
persons  and  the  decrease  during  the  decade  was  29  per  cent. 
Mungeli  suffered  from  a  long  succession  of  bad  harvests 
during  the  last  decade  in  addition  to  the  famines  of  1897  and 
1900.  The  density  of  population  is  122  persons  per  square 
mile,  being  higher  than  Bilaspur  and  lower  than  Janjgir. 
There    is   one  to»vn     Mungeli    (population    5907)  and  8S2 


MUNGELI    TAHSIL.  283 

inhabited  and  86  uninhabited  villages.  Besides  Mungeli  only 
Pandaria  (3322)  contained  more  than  2000  persons  in  1901, 
while  three  villages,  Pandatarai  (1269),  Patharia  (1051)  and 
Barela  (1044)  contained  between  1000  and  2000  persons. 
The  tahsll  has  two  zamindari  estates,  Pandaria  and 
Kanteli,.  whose  combined  area  is  512 

Agriculture. 

square  miles  or  7  per  cent,  of  that  of 
the  District.  The  area  of  Government  forest  is  446  square 
miles,  while  another  100  square  miles  consist  of  tree  forest 
and  scrub  jungle  and  grass  in  malguzari  villages,  the  area  of 
forest  being  1 1  per  cent,  of  the  malguzari  area.  In  the  zamin- 
daris  1 18  square  miles  or  23  per  cent,  of  the  total  are  forest. 
Of  the  village  area  of  936  square  miles,  a  proportion  of  78  per 
cent,  was  occupied  for  cultivation  in  1907-0S,  while  the  pro- 
portion of  occupied  area  in  the  zamindaris  was  58  per  cent. 
In  1907-08  the  cultivated  area  was  400,995  acres  and  the  net 
cropped  area  335,397  acres.  The  statistics  of  cropping  during 
the  last  three  years  are  shown  on  the  next  page. 

The  famines  caused  a  very  serious  decline  in  the  area 
under  rice  and  linseed  and  a  considerable  decrease  of  that 
under  wheat  In  the  last  few  years,  however,  there  has  been 
a  satisfactory  revival.  The  cropped  area  has  recovered  the 
position  which  it  occupied  before  the  famines,  though  the 
areas  under  rice  and  wheat  still  fall  short  of  the  level  then 
attained  A  great  impetus  was  given  in  the  famines  to  the 
cultivation  of  kodon,  which,  from  the  comparatively  small 
amount  of  moisture  which  the  crop  requires,  came  to  be 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  insurance  against  the  effects  of  drought, 
Linseed  shows  a  considerable  improvement,  and  as  in 
1906-07  the  rainfall  was  favourable  for  second  crops,  the 
pulses  which  are  grown  in  the  rice-fields  in  this  manner  were 
largely  sown.  In  the  black-soil  fields  of  Mungeli  kodon 
and  wheat  are  sown  in  rotation. 

In  1907-08  the  demand  for  land  revenue   in  the  malgu- 
zari    area    was    Rs.    93,797    and    for 
Land  Revenue. 

cesses  Rs.  5  1 5  5  •      -l  he  average  revenue 


284 


IVlIJNCJF.r.I    TAHSIL. 


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MUNGELI    TOWN.  28$ 

rate  per  acre  for  the  tabsll  was  R.  0-5-3.  The  takoll  fixed 
or  the  zamlndaris  lying  in  the  tahsll  was  Rs.  29,700  and 
the  demand  for  cesses  Rs.  3436.  The  whole  tahsil  is  now 
under  settlement. 

The  tahsll  is  divided  into  four  Revenue  Inspectors' 
circles  with  headquarters  at  Sargaon, 
Kunda,  LormI  and  Pandaria  and  88 
patwaris'  circles.  It  has  three  police  Station-houses  at. 
Mungell,  Lormi  and  Pandaria  with  seven  outposts  sub- 
ordinate to  them.  Of  these  outposts  Kanteli,  Patharia, 
Sargaon,  Pendri,  Lllapur  are  in  the  tahsll.  The  other  two, 
Kargi  and  Takhatpur,  are  within  the  Bilaspur  tahsil. 

M  ungeli  Town. — The  headquarters  tov/n  of  the  Mungeli 
tahsll,  situated  in  22^  4'  N.  and  81°  42'  E.,  on  the  Agar 
river,  31  miles  west  of  Bilaspur  by  road.  Its  area  is  2900 
acres  and  the  population  in  1901  was  5907  persons  as 
against  4755  in  i8gi.  The  town  is  incieasing  in  importance 
and  is  the  centre  of  trade  for  most  of  the  Mungell  tahsll. 
Grain  is  usually  sent  to  Bhatapara  station,  32  miles  distant 
by  road,  but  the  construction  of  a  narrow-gauge  railway  from 
Bilaspur  to  Mandla  through  Mungell  is  under  contemplation- 
The  provisions  of  the  Village  Sanitation  Act  are  in  force  in 
the  town  and  a  sum  of  about  Rs.  lOOO  is  raised  annually 
by  a  lax  on  incomes.  Most  of  the  existing  wells  have 
brackish  water  and  in  the  hot  weather  a  supply  has  to  be 
obtained  from  holes  dug  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  A  weekly 
market  is  held  on  Fridays.  The  town  has  the  usual  tahsll 
buildings,  a  police  Station-house,  a  dak  bungalow,  a  post 
office,  a  dispensary,  a  vernacular  middle  school,  and  a  girls' 
school.  A  station  of  the  American  Unsectarian  Mission 
known  as  the  Disciples  of  Christ  has  been  established  here 
and  supports  a  leper  asylum  with  about  50  lepers,  a  dispen- 
sary and  schools  for  boys  and  girls.  The  proprietor  of  the 
town  is  Ganpat  Rao  Amin,  a  Maratha  Brahman,  who  is  an 
Assistant  Surgeon  in  Government  service,  and  local  affairs 
are  managed  by  his  uncle.      The  founder  of  the  family  was  a 


286  NAWAGARH  —  PANDARIA    ZAMINDARI. 

revenue  officer  under  the  Bhonslas,  who  obtained  a  grant 
of  Mungeli. 

Nawagarh — A  large  village  in  tlie  Janjgir  talisil,  12 
miles  north  of  Janjgir  and  3  miles  west  of  Bamnldih.  Its 
area  is  4600  acres  and  the  population  in  1901  was  2050 
persons,  having  increased  by  about  a  hundred  during  the 
preceding  decade.  Tlie  village  has  a  primary  school  and  a 
weekly  market  is  held  on  Wednesdays.  The  proprietor  is  a 
Banifi. 

Pali. — A  small  village  in  the  Lapha  zamindari  of  Bilas- 
pur  tahsll,  22  miles  north-east  of  Bilaspur  and  12  miles  from 
Ratanpur,  with  a  population  of  250  persons.  At  the  south- 
western extremity  of  the  village  is  a  fine  tank  with  the  remains 
of  several  teinples  on  its  banks.  Of  these  all  except  one  are 
now  mere  heaps  of  stone  and  were  probably  never  of  much 
importance.  The  one  remaining  temple,  however,  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  Central  Provinces.  Mr.  Chisholm  describes 
it  as  follows  1  :  — 

'  What  now  remains  is  a  large  octagonal  dome  acting  as 

*  the  portico  to  an  inner  building,  which  was  formerly  dedicated 
'  to  the  service  of  Mahadeo.  As  3-ou  enter  the  dome  you  are 
'  at  once  struck  with  the  minute  and  elaborate  carvings  which 
'extend  from  the  floor  to  the  very  summit  of  the  building. 
'The  dome  is  supported  by  pillars  on  all  of  which  are 
'images  of  mythological  characters  famous  in  Hindu  legend 
'  and  song.  Above  these  pillars  the  lower  circle  of  the  dome 
Ms    a    series    of  minute    figures    often    chiselled     into    the 

*  most  fantastic  shapes.  The  most  elaborate  workmanship 
'  is,  however,  found  at  the  entrance  door  to  the  inner  build- 
*ing,  where  the  carving  is  most  minute  and  exquisitely 
'executed.' 

The  temple  was  built  by  Jajalladeva  whose  name  is 
inscribed  on  it  in  three   places. 

Pandaria  Zamindari. — See  Zamlndaris. 


^  Settlement  Report,  para.  39. 


INTERIOR    OF    OLD    TEMPLE.     PALL 


PANDARIA    VILLAGE — PENDRA    VILLAGE.  28/ 

Pandaria  Village. — The  headquarters  of  the  Pandaria 
zamlndari  in  the  Mungell  tahsll,  situated  21  miles  from 
Mungell  and  52  miles  from  Bilaspur  by  road.  Its  area  is 
2200  acres  and  the  population  was  3300  persons  in  1901  as 
against  4400  in  1891.  The  village  is  surrounded  by  fine  and 
extensive  mango  groves.  It  has  some  trade  in  timber  and  a 
weekly  market  is  held  on  Mondays.  It  is  the  headquarters 
of  a  Revenue  Inspector  and  contains  a  dispensary,  a  school, 
a  police  Station-house,  a  post  office  and  a  private  girls'  school 
supported  by  the  zamlndar.  An  inspection  bungalow  has 
been  erected.  The  zamlndar  lives  in  a  small  house  on  the 
bank  of  the  tank. 

Pandatarai. — A  village  in  the  Pandaria  zamlndari  of 
the  Mungeli  tahsil,  situated  on  the  border  between  Pandaria 
and  Kawardha  near  the  foot  of  the  Maikal  range.  The  place 
appears  to  have  been  of  considerable  importance  in  ancient 
times  and  cut  stone  and  other  remains  of  buildings  are  often 
found  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Some  temples  still  exist  with  fine  carvings.  The  population 
of  the  village  was  under  1300  persons  in  1901  as  against 
nearly  1900  in  1891.  It  has  a  primary  school,  a  police 
outpost  and  a  branch  post  office. 

Pendra  Zamlndari. — See  Zamindaris. 

Pendra  Village — The  headquarters  of  the  Pendra 
zamlndari  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil,  situated  five  miles  from 
Pendra  or  Gaurela  station  on  the  Bilaspur-Katni  line.  Its  area 
is  4600  acres  and  the  population  was  2500  persons  in  1901  as 
against  1950  in  1891.  The  village  has  some  trade  in  grain, 
and  in  lac  and  other  minor  forest  produce.  A  weekly  market 
is  held  on  Sundays.  The  zamindar  lives  at  Sadhwani,  at  a 
distance  of  four  miles  from  Pendra,  and  the  fine  residence 
which  was  built  for  him  here,  while  the  estate  was  under  the 
Court  of  Wards,  is  occupied  by  his  manager.  The  court- 
house and  school  are  also  substantial  buildings,  constructed 
by  the  Chhattisgarh  States  Roads  Department,  during  the 
.management    of    the    Court    of  Wards.     The    village  is  the 


288  PITIfAMPUR — RATANPUR. 

headquarters  of  a  Revenue  Inspector  and  has  a  dispensary 
and  a  post  and  telegraph  office,  and  a  police  Station-house. 
The  name  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  Pindari,  as  several 
bands  of  these  robbers  formerly  had  their  headquarters  in 
the  zamindari. 

Pithampur. — A  village  in  the  Champa  zamindari  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Hasdo  river,  4  miles  south  of  Champa 
station,  with  a  population  of  600  persons.  A  fair,  which  is  of 
quite  recent  date,  is  held  here  during  the  full  moon  of  Phagun 
lasting  for  six  or  seven  days.  It  is  said  that  the  god  Mahadeo 
appeared  in  a  dream  to  a  Teli  and  told  him  that  his  image  was 
buried  in  the  ground.  The  Teli  dug  up  the  image  and  set  it 
on  the  bank  of  the  river  and  was  thereby  cured  of  dysentery. 
The  zamindar  of  Khariiir  was  also  troubled  with  a  bad 
digestion  and  internal  pain,  and  he  built  a  temple  over  the 
image  and  became  much  better.  In  consequence  of  this  people 
troubled  with  disorders  of  the  stomach  come  to  Pithampur  to 
be  cured.  Tlie  more  devout  worshippers  make  an  offering 
of  100,000  grains  of  rice  counted  out,  no  imperfect  or  broken 
grains  being  included.  The  attendance  at  the  fair  is  20,000 
persons  or  more. 

Ratanpur. — A   town  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsll,  situated  in 
22^-^     17'    N.     and     82°     11'     E.,     16 

l-'o^itioii    and   descrip-  .,  ,,       ^  tim-  i  i        -t-i 

tion  ot  buildings.  miles  uorth  of  Bilaspur  by  road.      Ihe 

town  is  built  at  the  base  of  the  Kenda 
range  and  lies  in  a  hollow  almost  surrounded  by  isolated 
hills  so  that  nothing  is  seen  of  it  until  one  acluall}'  enters  its 
precincts.  -Ratanpur  was  for  man}^  centuries  the  capital  of 
Chluittlsgarh  under  the  HaihayavansI  dynasty,  and  is  believed 
to  have  been  founded  by  King  Ratnadeva  I.  after  whom 
it  is  named,  in  the  loth  century.  It  is  said  that  at  the  height 
of  its  importance  the  town  extended  as  far  as  Pali,  a 
village  12  miles  distant  in  the  direction  of  Lapha.  Its  ruins 
still  cover  a  large  area  and  consist  of  numerous  tanks  and 
temples  scattered  among  groves  of  mango  trees.  None  of 
the  temples   are  of  much   archaeological  interest.     The  ear- 


RATANPUR.  289 

liest  remains  consist  of  the  ruins  of  one  or  more  temples 
whose  pillars  and  sculptures  have  been  utilised  in  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  gates  and  posterns  of  the  fort,  and  of  the  buildings 
in  the  palace  known  as  the  Badal  Mahal.  Within  the  fort 
a  colonnade  abutting  against  the  interior  face  of  the  wall  is 
composed  entirely  of  ancient  pillars,  and  the  back  wall  is 
encrusted  with  sculpture.  One  of  the  scenes  represented  is 
that  of  the  horse  sacrifice  ;  and  another  shows  the  penitent 
Ravana  cutting  off  his  ten  heads  and  offering  them  to  the 
Imga.  Some  inscriptions  which  were  found  here,  but  have 
now  been  removed,  are  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  History. 
The  existing  temples  are  entirely  modern,  the  principal  ones 
being  that  of  Bridheshwar  Mahadeo  and  Bimbaji's  temple 
to  Ramchandra  on  the  hill  called  Ramtek.  This  latter  is 
visible  from  a  considerable  distance.  There  is  also  a  temple 
of  Mahamaya  and  in  the  collection  of  statues  near  it  are 
several  Jain  figures.  Near  this  temple  is  a  banyan  tree  up 
which  it  is  believed  that  the  groom  of  Ratnadeva  climbed 
in  the  night  and  saw  the  gods  and  goddesses  disporting 
themselves ;  and  this  sight  led  to  the  founding  of  Ratan- 
pur.  The  goddess  is  said  to  have  once  devoured  a  prince 
and  one  of  her  faces  is  consequently  turned  backwards.  A 
tradition  exists  that  a  Haihaya  prince  was  once  offered  as 
a  sacrifice  to  the  goddess.  The  town  now  contains  about 
300  tanks,  most  of  them  very  small  and  filled  with  stagnant 
greenish  water,  and  several  hundred  temples.  Many  sati 
monuments  to  the  queens  of  the  HaihayavansI  dynasty  also 
remain.  The  most  prominent  of  these  is  near  the  old  fort, 
where  a  large  building,  gracefully  adorned  on  all  sides  with 
arches  and  minarets,  proclaims  that  here  some  270  years  ago 
twenty  queens  of  Raja  Lakshman  Sahai  became  voluntary 
martyrs  to  Brahmanical  cruelty  and  popular  feeling. 

The  area  of  Ratanpur  village  is  more  than  1 1,000  acres 

and  its  population  was    5479    persons 

triS.^"''''""^"*^  *"'^"'"     in     1901    as    against   6389   in    1891. 

The    population    has    declined    largely 

pp 


290  RATANPUR. 

even  in  recent  years  and  the  remains  of  ruined  houses 
are  numerous.  The  large  Dulahra  tank  extends  over  i8o 
acres.  There  are  several  other  tanks  from  which  a  large 
area  of  sugarcane  and  vegetable  is  annually  irrigated. 
Betel-vine  is  also  grown  in  considerable  quantities,  and 
the  quality  of  the  leaf  is  considered  to  be  very  good. 
The  supply  of  water  is  so  ample  that  the  crops  never  fail 
from  drought,  and  in  a  year  of  scarcity  the  cultivators  are 
enriched  by  the  high  prices  which  they  obtain  for  their 
produce.  The  principal  industry  consists  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  vessels  of  bell-metal,  and  a  peculiarly  bright 
polish  is  given  to  the  surface  of  the  metal  which  makes 
it  appear  almost  as  light  in  colour  as  nickel.  Glass 
bangles  are  also  made.  A  small  fair  of  the  Satnami 
Chamars  is  held  here  on  the  last  day  ofMagh  (January- 
February)  .  They  bathe  in  the  Dulahra  tank,  which  they 
consider  to  be  sacred,  and  also  throw  locks  of  their 
children's  hair  and  the  bones  of  their  dead  into  the 
tank.  The  climate  of  the  place  is  unliealthy  and  the 
inhabitants  are  afflicted  with  goitre  and  elephantiasis, 
Brahmans,  Banias,  Kalars,  and  Sonars  are  found  in  fairly 
large  numbers  as  residents.  Several  proprietors  of  other 
villages  reside  here  and  some  of  them  have  cultivation  in 
Ratanpur ;  but  the  distinctive  element  of  the  population^i 
Mr.  Chisholm  wrote,  is  a  large  section  of  lettered  Brahmans, 
the  hereditary  holders  of  rent-free  villages,  who  are  the 
interpreters  of  the  sacred  writings  and  the  ministers  of 
religious  ceremonies  for  a  great  portion  of  Chhattisgarh.  A 
bench  of  Honorary  Magistrates  has  been  constituted  here. 
The  town  has  a  vernacular  middle  school,  a  branch  school 
and  a  Government  girls'  school  and  a  police  Station- 
house.  The  only  accommodation  for  visitors  is  an 
inspection  hut.  The  proprietor  of  the  village  is  Khande 
Rao,  son  of  Ganpat  Rao,  Brahman,  who  is  heavily 
involved.  His  grandfather  was  a  Kamaishdar  under  the 
Marathas  and   was   given  the  village   at   the   settlement  of 


SALKHAN — SATPURA    HILLS.  29 1 

1863.     The  provisions   of  the  Village  Sanitation    Act   are 
in  force  in  the  town. 

Salkhan — A  large  village  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil  about 
15  miles  south  of  Janjgir  towards  Seorlnarayan.  Its  area 
is  nearly  3700  acres  and  the  population  was  2400  persons 
in  1901  as  against  200c  in  1891.  The  village  has  a  number 
of  tanks,  from  which  a  considerable  area  can  be  irrigated 
and  excellent  sugarcane  is  grown.  It  has  a  primary  school 
and  a  weekly  market  is  held  on  Thursdays.  The  proprietor 
is  a  well-to-do  Kurmi. 

Satpura  Hills. — A   range   of  hills    in    the  centre   of 
India.      Ihe  name,  which  is    modern,    originally   belonged 
only    to   the  hills   which   divide    the    Nerbudda    and    Tapti 
valleys    in     Nimar    (Central    Provinces),    and   which    were 
styled  the  sat  ptiira  or  seven  sons  of  the  Vrndhyan  mountains. 
Another  derivation  is  from  sat  piird  i  seven  fold),  referring  to 
the  numerous  parallel  ridges  of  the  range.    The  term  Satpura 
is  now,,  however,  customarily  applied  to   the  whole  range, 
which,  commencing  at  Amarkantak  in  Rewah,  Central   India 
(22''  40'  N.,    Si""  46'  E.),  runs  south  of  the  Nerbudda  river 
nearly  down  to  the  western  coast.     The  Satpuras  are  some- 
times,  but  incorrectly,   included   under   the  Vindhya  range. 
Taking  Amarkantak  as  the  eastern  boundary  the  Satpuras 
extend  from  east  to  west  for  about  600  miles,  and  in  their 
greatest  depth   exceed  100  miles  from  north  to  south.     The 
shape  of  the  range  is  almost  triangular.     From  Amarkantak 
an  outer  ridge  runs  south-west  for  about    100  miles  to  the 
Saletekri  hills   in   the  Balaghat   District,   thus  forming  as  it 
were  the  head  of  the  range.     This   is   known  as  the  Maikal 
range    which   crosses    through   a    portion    of   the    Bilaspur 
District.     The  Satpuras  as  they  proceed   westward  from  a 
broad  tableland   to  two    parallel  ridges  end,   so  far  as  the 
Central  Provinces  are  concerned,  at  the  famous  hill  fortress 
of   Aslrgarh.     Beyond  this  point    the    Rajpipla   hills,   which 
separate  the  valley  of  the  Nerbudda  from  that  of  the  Tapti, 
complete  die  chain  as  far   as   the    Western  Ghats.     On   tiie 


2^2  SEONATH  RlVEK. 

tableland  comprised  between  the  northern  md  southern 
faces  of  the  range  are  situated  the  Districts  of  Mandla,  part 
6f  Balaghat,  SeonI,  Chhindwara  and  BetQl. 

The  highest  peaks  are  contained  in  the  northern  range 
rising  abruptl}'  from  the  valley  of  the  Nerbudda  ?nd  generally 
sloping  down  to  the  plateau,  but  tovvards  the  west  the 
Southern  range  has  the  greater  elevation.  Another  notice- 
able feature  is  a  number  of  small  tablelands  lying  among  the 
hills  at  a  greater  height  than  the  bulk  of  the  plateau.  Of 
these  Amarkantak  in  the  Rewah  State  (3000  feet)  had  once 
'been  selected  as  a  military  sanitarium,  Pachmarhi  (3530 
feet)  and  Ghikalda  in  Berar  (3664  feet)  have  been  formed 
into  hill  stations,  while  Raigarh  (2200  feet)  in  the  Balaghat 
District  and  Khamla  in  Betul  (3700  feet)  are  famous  grazing 
and  breeding  grounds  for  cattle.  Dhupgarh  (4454  feet)  is  the 
highest  point  on  the  range,  and  there  area  few  others  of  over 
4000.  Among  the  peaks  that  rise  from  3000  to  3800  feet 
above  sea-level,  the  grandest  is  Turanmal  (Bombay  Presi- 
dency), a  long  rather  narrow  tableland  3300  feet  above  the 
sea  and  about  16  square  miles  in  area.  West  of  this  the 
mountainous  land  presents  a  wall-like  appearance  both 
towards  the  Nerbudda  on  the  north  and  the  Tapti  on  the 
south.  On  the  eastern  side  the  Tasdin  Vali  (Central  India) 
commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  general  height  of  the  plateau  is  about  2000  feet. 

Seonath  River  (From  the  god  Siva  and  ndih,  a  mas- 
ter).— The  river  containing  much  the  largest  supply  of  water 
in  the  District,  rises  in  the  hills  of  the  Panabaras  zamindari 
of  the  Drug  District  and  flows  in  a  direction  for  the  most 
part  north-east  for  about  16  miles,  forming  the  boundary 
oetween  the  Khujji  zamindari  of  the  Sanjari  tahsil  of  the 
Drug  District  and  the  Nandgaon  State.  It  then  passes 
through  the  Nandgaon  State  flowing  in  the  same  direction 
and  from ///rt-z/s^  Jhola  it  forms  again  for  about  3  miles  the 
boundary  between  the  Drug  tahsil  and  the  Nandgaon  State. 
Then  entering  the  tahsil  it  flows  by  Drug   town    almost  due 


SEONATH    RIVER.  293 

north  through  the  tahsll  and  at  maiizd  Mangrol  in  the 
Bemetara  tahsil  it  takes  a  bend  and  flows  almost  due  east  and 
meets  the  Raipur  District  at  a.  place  about  4  miles  south 
of  Simga.  From  this  place  for  about  3  miles  it  forms 
the  boundary  between  the  Raipur  and  Drug  Districts  till  it  is 
joined  by  the  Hanp  river  from  the  west^  a  distance  of  120 
miles  from  its  source.  After  this  junction  it  turns  eastward 
for  about  40  miles  till  it  joins  the  Mahanadi  in  the  north-east 
corner  of'  the  District  at  Changari,  4  miles  west  of  SeorT- 
narayan,  forming  the  boundary  between  the  Raipur  and  the 
Bilaspur  Districts.  During  its  course  its  tributaries  are  on 
the  left  bank  proceeding  from  the  south  the  Ghumuria, 
Sombarsa,  Amner  Suri,  Doti,  and  Kurrodh  all  in  the  Drug 
District ;  on  the  right  bank  the  Khekhra  and  Tandula  in 
the  Drug  District,  and  the  Kharun,  Jamania  and  Khorsi 
in  the  Raipur  District.  Numerous  other  small  nullahs 
also  flow  into  it.  The  Seonath  and  its  tributaries  flow 
i;i  deep  and  well  defined  beds  which  have  often  been 
cut  out  of  rock.  They  contain  water  when  the  eastern 
system  is  quite  dry.  The  bed  of  the  river  is  generally 
sandy  for  nearly  the  whole  distance,  but  near  Simga  and  in 
Tarenga  are  some  rocks.  Its  width  is  about  three  furlongs 
at  Mahamara  on  the  Nagpur  road  where  it  crosses  the  river 
2  miles  from  Drug.  Its  banks  are  20  to  50  feet  high. 
During  its  course  the  river  is  crossed  by  the  railway  ;  once 
at  a  mile  below  the  road  near  Mohlai  village  about  2  miles 
from  Drug,  and  again  on  the  border  of  the  Raipur  and 
Bilaspur  Districts  at  matizd  Garha,  4  miles  north  of  Nipania 
railway  station.  The  Tandula  river  and  Seonath  meet  near 
Changari  in  the  Drug  tahsll  where  there  is  a  fine  mango 
grove  of  85  acres  and  an  island  in  the  river  on  which 
guavas  are  grown.  At  Arjuni  also  in  the  Bemetara  tahsll 
and  at  Jhinjhiri  in  the  Drug  tahsil  there  are  islands  in  which 
there  are  guava  gardens.  Yams,  melons  and  cucumbers  are 
grown  on  the  sandy  stretches  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  Slate 
stones  are  found  in  the  bed  of  the    Seonath    at  Bazarbhata  in 


294  SEORINARAYAN. 

Baloda  Bazar  tahsil.  White  stone,  which  is  used  for  litho- 
graphy, is  fouud  near  Chandkhurl.  The  deeper  pools  are 
infested  by  alligators.  The  story  of  the  origin  of  the 
Seonath  is  that  a  Gond  girl  named  Shiva  was  carried  off  by  a 
Gond  boy  who  wished  to  marry  her  forcibly  after  the  fashion 
of  the  Gonds.  But  she  refused  and  he  killed  her  and  threw 
her  body  into  a  ravine ;  and  from  this  the  Seonath  began  to 
flow.     Its  total  length  is  about  i6o  miles. 

Seorinarayan. — A  village  in  the  Janjgir  tahsil,  39  miles 
south-east  of  Bilaspuron  the  old  Sambalpur  road  and  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Mahanadi  and  Jonk  rivers.  The 
Seonath  flows  into  the  Mahanadi  about  a  mile  higher  up. 
The  name  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Savvar  Narayan, 
and  it  is  said  to  have  been  called  at'ter  an  old  Sawara  or 
Saonr,  who  lived  in  the  forest  where  the  town  now  stands 
and  worshipped  Jagannath.  The  image  which  he  revered 
was  subsequently  discovered  by  a  Brahman  and  removed  to 
Orissa,  where  it  is  now  in  the  temple  of  Jagannath  at  Puri. 
But  as  a  reward  for  the  faithfulness  of  his  old  worshipper, 
Jagannath  ordained  that  the  place  of  his  concealment  in  the 
forest  should  be  called  after  both  their  names  and  hence  has 
come  its  title  of  Sawar  Narayan.  Seorinarayan  was  until 
1891  the  headquarters  of  the  present  Janjgir  tahsil,  and  the 
change  was  effected  owing  to  the  tahsil  buildings  at  the 
former  place  being  liable  to  damage  from  floods  on  the 
Mahanadi  and  to  its  being  away  from  the  railway  line.  The 
population  was  1750  persons  in  1901  as  against  2250  in 
1 89 1.  The  village  consists  of  two  separate  viaJials,  known 
as  Mahantpara  and  Bhogahapara.  The  proprietor  of  the  first 
is  Gautam  Das  Mahant  and  of  the  second  Jadunath  Bhogaha, 
so  called  because  he  supplies  food  to  the  deities  of  the  place 
and  to  religious  mendicants  at  the  temples.  For  this  purpose 
he  holds  a  grant  of  six  villages  free  of  revenue.  Adjoining  the 
village  is  a  very  fine  and  extensive  grove  of  old  mango  trees. 
The  temple  to  Narayan,  from  which  the  place  takes  its  name, 
is  supposed  from  an  inscription  on  one  of  its  tablets  to  have 


SON    RIVER.  295 

been  built  in  the  year  898  of  the  Kalachuri  era  or  1 146  A.D. 
It  is  interesting  only  on  account  of  its  antiquity  and  possesses 
no  architectural  beauty,  as  it  was  once  struck  by  lightning 
and  the  walls  have  been  plastered  over  to  hide  the  deface- 
ment. Close  to  [the  river  is  a  small  tank  called  the  Rohini 
•Kund,  in  which  people  place  the  bones  of  their  dead.  Seorl- 
narayan  was  formerly  a  favourite  residence  of  the  Ratanpur 
<:ourt  and  the  royal  ladies  often  came  here  to  bathe  in  the 
Mahanadi>  A  small  fair  is  held  here  on  the  last  day  of  Magh 
(January-February),  continuing  for  five  or  six  days.  The 
village  has  a  police  Station-house,  a  branch  post  office  and  a 
vernacular  middle  school.  A  weekly  market  is  held  on 
Wednesdays. 

Son  River ^  (Sanskrit  Suvarna  or  gold;  also  called 
Hiranyavaha  or  Hiranya-vahu,  the  Sonos  of  Arrian ;  also  iden- 
tified with  the  Erannoboas  of  Arrian).  — A  large  river,  which, 
flowing  from  the  Amarkantak  highlands  of  Central  India  (22° 
42'  N.,  82°  4'  E.)  first  north  and  then  east,  joins  the  Ganges, 
ten  miles  above  Dinapur,  after  a  course  of  about  487  miles. 

It  rises  near  manzd  Jamri  in  the  Pendra  zamlndari  of 
the  Bilaspur  District,  but  its  traditional  source  is  near  the 
Nerbudda  at  Amarkantak,  the  hill  from  which  it  springs 
located  being  called  Son-bhadra  or  more  commonly  Son- 
munda.  Its  waters  possess  great  sanctity,  the  performance 
of  sandhya  on  its  banks  ensuring  absolution  and  the  attain- 
ment of  heaven  even  to  the  slayer  of  a  Brahman.  Legends 
about  the  stream  are  numerous,  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
assigning  the  origin  of  the  Son  and  Nerbudda  to  two  tears 
dropped  by  Brahma,  one  on  either  side  of  the  Amarkantak 
range.  The  Son  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Hindu  literature, 
in  the  Ramayanas  of  Valmiki  and  Tulsl  Das,  the  Bhagvat 
and  other  works.  Soon  after  leaving  Amarkantak  the  son  (so 
called;  falls  in  a  cascade  over  the  edge  of  the  Amarkantak 
plateau  amid  the  most  picturesque  surroundings.  The  real 
^  Reprinted  from  the  article  in  the  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  the  U.  P. 


296  SOiN    RIVER. 

Stream  runs  through  the  level  plateau  of  the  Pendra  zamlndari 
till  it  enters  Revvah  State  in  23°  6' N.  and  ST  59' E  Its 
course  in  the  Bilaspur  District  is  about  36  miles.  From  this 
point,  till  it  leaves  the  Central  India  Agency  after  a  course  of 
288  miles,  the  stream  flows  through  a  maze  of  valley  and  hill, 
for  the  most  part  through  narrow  rocky  channels,  but  expand- 
ing in  favourable  spots  into  ^magnificent  deep  broad  reaches 
locally  called  Dahar,  the  favourite  resorts  of  the  fisher  caste. 

Following  at  first  a  northerly  course,  near  its  junction 
with  the  Mahanadi  river  at  Sarsi  it  meets  the  bold  scarp  of 
theKaimur  range  and  is  turned  in  a  north-easterly  direction, 
finally  leaving  the  Agency  5  miles  east  of  Deora  village.  In 
Central  India  three  other  afQuentsof  importance  are  received, 
one  on  the  left  bank,  the  Johila,  which  rises  at  Amar- 
kantak  and  enters  at  Barwalu  village,  and  two  which  join  it 
on  the  right  bank,  the  Banas  at  24°  17'  N.  and  81"  31'  E.  and 
the  Gopat  near  Bardl. 

In  the  United  Provinces  the  Son  flows  for  about  55 
miles  from  west  to  east  across  the  Mirzapur  District,  in  a 
deep  valley  never  more  than  eight  or  nine  miles  broad,  often 
narrowing  to  a  gorge,  and  receives  from  the  south  two 
tributaries,  the  Rehand  and  the  Kanhar.  In  the  dry  season 
it  is  shallow,  but  rapid,  varies  in  breadth  from  60  to  ico 
•yards,  and  is  easily  fordable. 

The  Son  enters  Bengal  in  24°  31'  N.,  83°  24'  E.,  and 
flows  in  a  jiorth-westerly  direction  separating  the  District  of 
Shahabad  from  Palamau,  Gaya,  and  Patna  till,  after  a>course 
within  Bengal  of  144  miles,  it  falls  into  the  Ganges  in 
25^40'  N.,  84'  59'  E.  So  far  as  regards  navigation,  its  stream 
is  mainly  used  for  floating  down  large  rafts  of  bamboos  and 
a  little  timber.  In  the  rainy  season,  native  boats  of  large 
tonnage  occasionally  proceed  for  a  short  distance  up  stream; 
but  navigation  is  then  rendered  dangerous  by  the  extra- 
ordinary violence  of  the  flood,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year 
it  becomes  impassable,  owing  to  the  small  depth  of  water.  The 
great  irrigation  system  known  as  the  Son  Canals  is  served 


SON    RIVER,  297 

by  the  river,  the  water  being  distributed  west  to  the  Shaha- 
bad  District  and  east  to  the  Gay  a  and  Patna  District  from  an 
anient  constructed  at  Dehrl.      In   the  lower  portion  of  its 
course  the  Son  is  marlced    by  several  striking  characteristics. 
Its  bed  is  enormously  wide,   in  some  places  stretching  for 
three  miles  from  bank  to  bank.     During  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  this  broad  channel  is   merely  a  waste  of  drifting 
sand,  with  an  insignificant    stream  that  is  nearly  everywhere 
fordable.    Tlie  discharge  of  water  at  this  time  is  estimated  to 
fall  as  low  as  620  cubic  feet  per  second.     But  in  the  rainy 
season,  and  especially  just  after  a  storm  has  burst  on  the 
plateau    of   Central    India,    the    river    rises    with    incredible 
rapidity.     The  entire   rainfall    of  an  area  of  about   21,300 
square  miles  requires  to  find  an  outlet  by  this  channel,  which 
frequently  proves  unable  to  carry  off  the  total  flood  discharge, 
calculated  at  830,000  cubic  feet   per  second.     These  heavy 
floods  are  of  short  duration,  seldom  lasting  for  more  than 
four  days;   but  in  recent  years  they  have    wrought    much 
destruction  in  the  low-lying  plains  of  Shahabad.     Near  the 
site  of  the  great  dam  at  Dehri  the  Son   is  crossed  by  the 
Grand  Trunk  Road  on  a  stone  causeway ;   and  lower  down, 
near    Koelwar,    the   East   Indian   Railway   has   been   carried 
across  on  a  lattice  girder  bridge.     This   bridge,  begun  for  a 
single  line  of  rails  in  1855,  and  finally  completed  for  a  double 
line  in  1870,  has  a  total  length  of  4199  feet  from  back  to 
back  of  the  abutments.    The  Son  possesses  historical  interest 
as   being  probably  identical   with  the  Erannoboas  of  Greek 
geographers,  which  is  thouglit  to  be  a  corruption  of  Fiiranya- 
bahu,  or  '  the  golden-armed '   (a  title  of  Siva),  a  name  which 
the  Son  anciently  bore.      The  old  town    of  Palibothra  or 
Patalipulra  corresponding  to  the  modern  Patna  was  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  the   Erannoboas  and  the  Ganges,  and,  in 
addition,    we   know   that  the  junction   of  the    Son   with  the 
Ganges  has  been  gradually  receding  westwards.  Old  channels 
of  the  Son  have  been  found  between  Bankipore  and  Dina- 
pur,  and  even    below   the  present    site  of  Patna.       In    the 


298  TAKHATl'UR — TUMAN. 

Bengal  Atlas  of  1772  tlie  junction  is  marked  near  Maner,  and 
it  would  seem  to  have  been  at  the  same  spot  in  the  i7ih 
century;  it  is  now  (1904)  about  10  miles  higher  up  the 
Ganges- 

Takhatpur. — A  large  village  in  the  Bilaspur  tahsil  on 
the  border  of  Mungeli,  18  miles  west  of  Bilaspur  on  the 
Mungeli  road  and  situated  on  the  Maniari  river.  Its  area  is 
2100  acres  and  the  population  was  2600  persons  in  1901  as 
against  2 1  CO  in  1891.  Takhatpur  is  named  after  one  Takhat 
Singh,  a  Haihaya  Prince  who  founded  it.  The  village  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  grain  and  a  number  of  Banias,  Cutchis 
and  other  traders  reside  here.  A  market  for  the  sale  of  cattle 
and  general  merchandise  is  held  on  Fridays  and  is  largely 
attended.  Guavas  of  superior  quality  are  grown  in  the  vil- 
lage and  are  exported  to  Calcutta.  There  is  excellent  kachJiar 
land  on  the  banks  of  the  Maniari  on  vvliich  sugarcane  and 
vegetables  are  raised.  The  village  has  a  vernacular  middle 
school,  a  girls'  school  ahd  a  branch  post  office.  The  pro-- 
prietor  is  a  Bairagi  lady. 

Tuman,^ — A  small  village  in  the  Lapha  zamindariof  the 
Bilaspur  tahsil,  about  60  miles  from  Bilaspur  and  45  miles 
from  Ratanpur  with  a  population  of  nearly  400  persons. 
The  following  description  of  the  place  has  been  drawn  up  by 
Mr.  Hira  Lai  who  has  visited  it,  and  the  statements  made  in 
it  rest  on  his  authority.  He  considers  that  Tuman  was  the 
first  capital  of  the  Haihaya  king's  when  they  came  to  Chhat- 
tisgarh.  It  is  mentioned  in  an  inscription^  of  Jajalladeva  I, 
dated  in  the  year  1 1 14  A. D.,  that  his  ancestor  Kalingariija 
settled  at  Tuman  ;  and  the  capital  was  afterwards  removed 
to  Ratanpur  by  RaLnadeva  I,  the  grandfather  of  Jajalladeva. 
Tuman  is  situated  in  a  valley  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a 
ring  of  mountains  and  affording  egress  at  only  two  points 
towards  Uprora  and  Matin  in  the  east  and  west.  Inside  the 
valley  are  situated  about  16  villages  known  as  the  Tuman 
Khol.     The  whole  place  would  have  been  well  suited  for  the 

^  Jipi.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p.  34. 


UPRORA    ZAMINDARI— ZAMINDARIS.  299 

first  settlement  of  a  small  invading  force,  being  secluded  and 
easily  defensible  against  the  attacks  of  barbarian  enemies. 
The  former  extent  of  the  place  can  be  deduced  from  the 
many  remains  of  tanks  and  temples.  The  local  tradition  is  to 
the  effect  that  there  were  once  chhai  agar  chiiai  kori  talao 
or  six  score  and  six  (126)  tanks  here.  In  one  place  about 
125  yards  square  Mr.  Hira  Lai  discovered  some  fifteen  heaps 
of  ruins  of  cut  and  carved  stones.  These  were  principally 
temples  and  in  the  central  heap  after  the  removal  of  the 
debris  he  found  a  fine  gateway.  On  the  top  of  it  were  the 
images  of  Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva,  the  last  being  in  the 
centre  and  indicating  that  the  temple  was  dedicated  to  that 
deity,  j^etween  the  images  were  carved  the  figures  of  the 
nine  planets  and  on  the  door  jambs  those  of  the  ten  incarna- 
tions of  Vislinu,  and  below  them  the  Ganges  on  her  croco- 
dile and  the  Jumna  on  her  tortoise.  All  these  figures  are 
well  carved  in  the  same  style  as  the  temples  of  Pali  or  Janj- 
gir.  Close  by  is  the  river  Jatashankari,  and  on  its  bank  is 
a  heap  of  ruins  of  cut  stone,  the  place  being  known  as  the 
Satkhanda  Mahal  or  seven-storied  palace,  and  this  may 
possibly  have  been  formerly  the  residence  of  the  kings.  The 
description  here  given  by  Mr.  Hira  Lai  is  the  first  which  has 
been  published  of  Tuman. 

Uprora  Zamindari. — See  Zamlndarls. 

Zamindaris.— The  zamlndaris  of  the  Bilaspur  Dis- 
trict are  ten  in  number.  Two  of  them  lie  wholly  in  the  open 
country;  a  third,  half  hill  and  half  plain,  lies  in  the  extreme 
west  ;  and  the  remaining  seven,  known  as  the  '  Seven  Forts' 
(Sat  Garh),  monopolise  almost  the  whole  of  the  hill  country 
to  the  north  of  Bilaspur.  They  are  of  varying  extent,  but 
cover  together  no  less  than  4236  square  miles  or  five-ninths  of 
the  whole  District.  But  little  is  known  of  the  detailed  history 
of  the  individual  estates.  Their  continued  existence  during 
the  many  political  changes  of  the  last  three  hundred  years,  and 
the  development  of  the  present  rights  and  liabilities  of  the 
zamlndars    can  best  be   explained  in  a  general  survey      The 


300  ZAMINDARIS. 

points  of  interest  connected  with  each  separate    estate  can 
then  be  briefly  summarised. 

2.  The  opening  chapter  in  their  history  covers  the  whole 
period  of  Hindu  and  Marfitha  rule  down  to  the  year  1821 
A.D,  when  the  zamindaris  in  their  present  form  were 
recognised  for  the  first  time  by  a  representative  of  the  British 
Government.  Oral  traditions,  the  relics  of  ancient  institu- 
tions, and  scanty  references  in  official  documents  are  all  we 
have  to  guide  us  in  reconstructing  even  the  most  elementary 
outline  of  their  development  in  early  times.  In  all  old  Hindu 
kingdoms  there  are  found  uniform  traces  of  a  central  king's 
domain  {khdlsa)  surrounded  by  more  or  less  independent 
estates  to  protect  it  from  pillage  and  invasion.  This  is  the 
normal  type  to  which  the  Haihaya  kingdom  was  no  excep- 
tion. But  it  has  heretofore  been  generally  presumed  that 
this  king's  domain  exactly  correspvonded  with  what  we  know 
as  khalsa  at  the  present  day,  and  that  our  zamindaris  are 
survivals  of  the  ancient  marches  which  surrounded  the  fertile 
level  country  and  formed  its  protection  from  outside  attack. 
The  case  is  not  so  simple.  Quotations  from  a  Revenue  Book 
of  the  )6th  century  (preserved  in  the  Settlement  Reports  of 
i868)  tell  us  that  in  the  reigns  of  Kalyan  Sahai  and  his  son 
the  ivhole  of  the  Chhattis  Garh — that  is  to  say,  all  the  36  or 
more  cliaurdsis  into  which  the  Rajputs  divided  the  country  for 
administrative  purposes — were  under  the  king's  direct  manage- 
ment.^ These  formed  the  *  klialsa  parganas,'  as  they  are 
there  called,  and  outside  and  around  these  Chhattis  Garh  lay 
still  more  distant  tracts  of  country  held  by  semi-independent 
Rajas  as  feudatory  states.  How  then  did  the  numerous 
♦  zamindaris  '  of  our  own  time  come  into  existence  within 
eiihattisgarh  proper?  And  how  was  the  king's  domain 
brought  down  to  the  narrow  limits  of  our  khalsa— \\m\is 
which  in  the  later  Rajput  and  early  Maratha  days,  before 
the  zamindais  of  Nawagarh  and  Mungeli  (and  others  no 
doubt  of  whom  we  have  no  record)  were  ousted  from  their 
*See  Hewilt's  Raipur  Settlement  Keport  of  1868,  para.  56, 


ZAMINDARIS.  301 

estates,  were  far  narrower  even  than  they  are  at  present  ? 
An  explanation  has  been  offered  in  Chapter  II  of  this  volume. 
It  was  there  suggested  that  the  chaurdsis,  or  administrative 
units  of  Chhattlsgarh,  were  at  first  held  by  an  official  class 
wholly  dependent  on  the  sovereign,  but  that  a  customary 
privilege  grew  up  around  each  office  rendering  it  hereditary 
and  endowing  it  with  considerable  executive  as  well  as  fiscal 
powers;  and  that  finally  the  more  fortunate  among  these 
officials  became  in  the  17th  and  l8th  centuries  the  local 
chiefs  of  the  areas  within  their  charge.  But  such  full  local 
authority  could  only  develop  out  of  the  weakness  of  the 
central  power,  and  the  position  of  hereditary  chieftains  could 
only  be  assumed  when  royal  interference  was  comparatively 
rare.  Hence  it  came  about  that  a  distinction  arose  between 
those  chaicrdsis  of  Chhattlsgarh  proper  in  which  hereditary 
officials  were  conceded  a  prescriptive  title  to  their  charge, 
and  the  areas  more  central,  and  therefore  more  easy  to  con- 
trol, in  which  a  frequent  change  of  management,  as  the  result 
of  royal  favour  or  caprice,  prevented  the  growth  of  any  cus- 
tomary claims.  In  the  former  we  may  trace  the  origin  of 
our  zamindaris,  while  in  the  latter  lay  the  nucleus  of  our 
present  khdha  lands. 

3.  By  the  close  of  Rajput  rule  the  number  of  these 
hereditary  officials  in  possession  of  parganas  was  probably 
very  large,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  king's  immediate 
control  extended  over  more  than  the  three  or  four  open-coun- 
try parganas  which  lay  nearest  to  Ratanpur.  But  the  area 
under  direct  royal  management  always  varied  as  the  king 
was  strong  or  weak,  and  once  the  Marathas  took  possession 
of  the  country  the  increase  of  the  khdlsa  'in  our  modern 
sense)  was  very  rapid.  These  invaders  had  no  real  antipathy 
to  the  Rajput  regime,  and  indeed  accepted  for  17  years  a 
representative  of  the  Haihaya  house  as  king  of  Ratanpur.  But 
they  were  bent  on  extracting  from  the  country  the  maximum 
amount  of  money  possible;  while  Bimbaji,  who  establisiied 
himself  in   Ratanpur  from  A. D.  1758  to   1787,  was  equally 


302  ZAMINDAIUS. 

determined  to  favour  his  own  followers  at  the  expense  of  the 
servants  of  the  older  dynasty.  Hence  the  number  of  old 
hereditary  officials  was  soon  reduced,  wliile  the  /Jid/sn  juris- 
diction, vvhicli  simply  meant  the  area  controlled  by  Maratha 
Kaiiiaishddrs  and  i\\&\v patels  in  place  of  the  local  Dlwdns  and 
Daos,  spread  rapidly  over  the  bulk  of  the  open  country, 
until  it  embraced  the  limits  which  have  now  become  stereo- 
typed under  the  British  rule. 

4.  This  rough  sketch  is  sufficient  to  establish  the  vary- 
ing and  accidental  character  of  the  distinction  between 
'khalsa'  and  '  zamlndaris '  ;  and  shows,  as  regarJs  the 
latter,  with  which  we  are  especially  concerned,  how  largely 
fortuitous  was  the  growth  of  their  peculiar  status.  It  is 
certain  that  what  have  been  called  the  '  quasi-sovereign 
rights'  of  the  zamlndars,  as  heads  of  abnormal  units  of  the 
body  politic,  vvere  throughout  an  unauthorised  development. 
There  is  not  a  line  of  evidence  to  suggest  that  the  zamlndari 
status  within  Chhattlsgarh  proper,  such  as  we  found  when 
we  took  over  the  country  in  1854,  was  in  origin  a  deliberate 
creation  by  the  central  power.  The  only  deed  produced  as 
evidence  of  this  (a  copper  plate  from  Lapha)  has  been  proved 
to  be  a  manifest  forgery.  The  neglect  of  all  local  adminis- 
tration by  the  king  forced  certain  duties  on  his  official  sub- 
ordinates. Tliese  duties  became  customary,  and  involved  in 
their  performance  the  maintenance  of  some  local  authority 
by  the  land-officers.  This  authority  was  in  man}'  of  the 
parganas  never  checked,  and  eventually  commanded  the 
acquiescence  of  the  Marathas  and  the  respect  of  our  own 
administration.  As  new  growths  encroach  on  land  left  long 
untilled  by  a  feeble  husbandman,  so,  as  the  power  of  the 
Rajput  kings  declined,  new  authorities  grew  up  in  parts  of 
the  country  beyond  their  easy  reach.  Had  no  outside  power 
intervened,  it  is  possible  that  in  course  of  time  the  country 
■would  have  lapsed  into  a  chaos  of  pett}-  struggling  chieftain- 
cies, such  as  thit  described  by  Sir  R.  Jenkins  in  the  old 
Wainganga  District.     But  the  strong  arm   of  the   Marathas 


ZAMINDARIS.  3O3 

soon    crushed    this    tendency,   and   once   more  asserted  the 
central   authority  over  a  wide  area  of  counlry.     Bimbaji  was 
himself  responsible  for   this.      But    he  also    seems    to    have 
regarded   many  of  the  old  hereditary  ofificers  with  tolerance. 
With  the  government  however  by  Subahdars  v/hich  followed 
Bimbaji's  decease,  all  concession  to  local  feeling  was  refused. 
Bimbaji  was  a  hard  master,  but  the  Subahdars  who  followed 
him  exchanged  his  whips  for  scorpions.     The   zamlndars   of 
Mungeli  and  Navvagarh,  the  only  Diwans  of  the  open  country 
who   remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  old  chanr- 
a>is,  were  blown  from  the  mouth  of  cannon  and  their  estates 
were  forfeited  to  government.      Possibly    being  Gonds,  they 
were  suspected  of  intriguing  with  the  Partabgarh  Gond  Raja 
meniioned   by  Blunt,   who  was  at   war  about  this  time  with 
the  Marathas.     The  Pendra  estate  was  resumed,  probably  on  a 
similar  plea,  and  Korba  too  was    temporarily    seized.     That 
atiy  of  the  zamindars  survived  the  greed  and  violence    of  the 
petty  subahs   must  be  attributed  solely  to  the  physical  con- 
figuration   of    the    country    which     they    held.     It   was   not 
without  reason  that  in  older  days  the  zamindars  in  Paudaria, 
Kenda,    Lapha,  Chhuri    and    Korba— wherever    the   estates 
adjoined  the  open  country — had  established  their  headquarters 
immediately  below  the  hills.     Their  confidence  in    them    was 
not  misplaced.     The  exiled  Maratha  had  always  the  strongest 
aversion  to  a  first   hand  acquaintance   with   these   mountain 
tracts,  haunted  in  his  imagination  by  cannibals  and  tigers  and 
the  special  abode  of  all  malignant  agencies  so  common   in 
earlier  times  in  Chhattisgarh.     They    hesitated  to  undertake 
the  management  of  such  a  country  and  meanwhile  left  them  in 
the  hands  of  the  old  local  chiefs,  and  the  more  readily  perhaps, 
because  the  presents  which  they  brought  to   Ratanpur  formed 
the  most  valued  perquisite  of  the  post  of  SObahdar. 

5.  When  therefore  the  British  Regency  began  and  Colo- 
nel Agnew  was  sent  in  i8i8  as  Super- 
tra^fdn!^'"''"^'''^"''"'"      intendent    of  Chhattisgarh,    he   found 
eisht  of  the   old   chain  dsis  in   the  hills 


304  ZAMINDARIS. 

Still  in  the  possession  of  their  ancestral  holders.  His  arrival 
was  the  prelude  to  administrative  improvements  of  the  most 
far-reaching  kind.  The  zamindar  of  Pendra  was  reinstated, 
and  the  family  of  the  Mungeli  chief  was  provided  for  by  a 
grant  of  some  30  villages  round  Kanteli.  The  arrears  of 
revenue  outstanding  against  the  great  landholders  *  due  to 
their  utter  inability  to  liquidate  them  '  which  had  run  into  lakhs 
of  rupees  were  remitted ;  their  tribute  was  reduced  ;  and  finally 
in  1821  a  formal  agreement  was  given  to  every  zamindar  in 
Chhattisgarh,  which  for  the  first  time  gave  each  of  them  official 
recognition  from  the  British  Government.  These  engage- 
ments, of  which  a  specimen  is  preserved  in  Aitchison's 
Volume  of  Treaties  vNo.  CXL),  formed  the  opening  step  in 
a  new  administrative  era. 

6  Interest  in  the  subsequent  history  of  these  estates 
centres,  firstly,  in  their  material  development  during  the  86 
years  which  have  since  elapsed,  and  secondly  in  the  measures 
taken  in  more  recent  times  to  incorporate  them  gradually  in 
the  routine  administration  of  the  District.  The  enormous 
stimulus  to  agriculture  and  forest  exploitation  afforded  by 
a  stable  administration  and  improved  communications  is 
nowhere  so  well  emphasised  as  here ;  and  a  simple  recapitu- 
lation of  the  rise  in  income  and  of  the  details  of  periodical 
revisions  of  revenue  assessment  is  sufficient  to  prove  this. 
For  nearly  50  years  from  1821  to  1867  the  zamlndars  of 
Bilaspur  continued,  save  for  a  single  readjustment  in  1855  on 
account  of  the  higher  exchange  value  of  the  new  '  Company's 
rupee,'  to  pay  the  takolls  (quit  revenue)  fixed  in  1821  by 
Colonel  Agnevv.  The  total  sum  contributed  during  all  this 
time  by  the  present  ten  estates  of  Bilaspur  was  13,355  Com- 
pany's rupees.  The  period  was  one  of  steady  unobtrusive 
development.  The  restitution  of  Maratha  rule  from  1830 
to  1855  had  no  ill  effect  owing  to  the  restraining  influence  of 
theNagpur  Resident.  In  1857  althougli  the  paramount  British 
authority  had  only  been  recently  established,  the  zamln- 
dars, with  the  one  doubtful  exception  of  Pandaria,  were  loyal 


ZAMINDARIS.  305 

to  the  new   regime,   and  during  the  operations  in  Sohagpur 
every  assistance  was  given  to  the  British  force  by  the   north- 
ern  zamlndars.     When  tlierefore    ten   years   later  the    first 
detailed    settlement  of  Bilaspur    was   undertaken,  a  marked 
increase  in  income  enabled  tlie  Settlement  Officer  to  secure  a 
large  enhancement.     The  system  followed  was  a  simple  one. 
No  survey  was  attempted.  A  *  fair  rent, '  generally  6  annas  per 
acre,  was  applied  to  a  rough  estimate  of  the  area  under  culti- 
vation in  each  village.     Half  the  figure  so  obtained,  modified 
in  the  light  of  present  payments  and  the  Settlement  Officer's 
appraisement  of  the  paying  capacity  of  the  holder,  gave  him 
his  '  proposed  assessment'  of   the  village,  and  one-fourth  of 
the  total  proposed  assessment  was  fixed  as  the  land-revenue 
iakoU  o'i  the  whole  estate.     One  half  of  the  estimated   income 
from  other  sources,  forest,  excise,  and  pa ndhri  (a  property  tax), 
was  also  fixed  as  the  zamlndar's  contribution  to  Government 
under   these  various  heads,  and  the  whole  assessment    was 
imposed   for   20  years.      By   this   resettlement  the  payments 
of  the  ten  zamlndars  of  Bilaspur,  on  account  of  land-revenue 
and  forests,  was  fixed  at  Rs.  18,530  and  their  total  contribu- 
tion raised  from  Rs.  11,628  (sterling)  to  Rs.  23,037.     Their 
total  income  from  land  and  forests  only  was  estimated  at  this 
time   at    Rs.    57,393.      From     1867   onwards   the  develop- 
ment of  the  country  was    still  more   rapid,    in  spite    of    the 
famine  of   iS6g    and   the   scarcity     of     1878.      Road    com- 
munications   were  being    rapidly    extended,    and    just  at  the 
close  of  the    20  years'   settlement    the  opening  of  the    rail- 
way  from  Nagpur  to  Calcutta,   with   a  branch  line   through 
Kenda  and   Pendra  to  the  junction  at  Katni,  revolutionised 
the  conditions   o-f   trade  and    export.     Their  altered   circum- 
stances  had  tempted  some  of  the  zamlndars  into  great  extra- 
vagances ;  and  Kanteli,  Matin,  Pendra,  Chhuri  and    Pandaria 
had  all   to  be  brought  under  Government  control  at  different 
times,  in  order  to  enable  tliem  to  clear  off  their  debts.     But,  in 
all  but  the  first  mentioned  estate,  solvency  was  easily  regained 
owing   to  the  enormaus  addition  to  their  incomes  secured  by 


306  ZAMINDARIS. 

the  new  market  for  tiriibcr  ;ind  other  forest  produce  which 
the  railway  had  created.  Meanwliile  the  zamindari  assess- 
ment was  again  revised  on  summary  lines.  But  now  (in 
1890)  a  new  principle  of  assessment  widely  different  from  that 
of  1867  was  introduced,  in  so  far  as  revision  was  based  on 
actual  and  not  on  estimated  figures,  on  rents  and  village  col- 
lections as  actually  paid  at  the  time  of  enquiry  and  not  as  con- 
sidered by  the  Settlement  Officer  to  be  '  payable'  in  the  vill- 
ages of  each  estate.  Though  theoretically  sound  in  practice  the 
method  was  misleading,  for  the  revision  of  takolls  was  natur- 
ally a  signal  for  all  the  zamindars,  except  those  under  Govern- 
ment management,  to  re-adjust  their  income  from  their  vill- 
ages to  meet  the  increased  demand  by  Government.  The  re- 
vised ttikolis  in  consequence  were  never  paid  from  an  income 
at  all  resembling  that  on  the  basis  of  which  the}'  had  been 
calculated.  The  false  impression  conveyed  by  this  system 
actually  i-esulted  in  a  reduction  of  some  of  the  takolls  in  1894 
on  the  supposition  that  they  represented  too  high  a  percentage 
of  the  zamindars'  assets.  The  general  result  of  this  re-assess- 
ment of  1890  was  to  raise  the  total  forest  and  land-revenue 
takoll  in  the  ten  estates  to  Rs.  56,010,  and  their  total 
contribution  to  Government  from  Rs.  33,307  to  Rs.  65,030. 
The  unrevised  total  income,  on  which  the  land-revenue  and 
forest  takoliwas  based,  amounted  to  Rs.  1,2,6,46^,  but  this  was 
nearly  doubled  in  some  of  the  estates  in  the  next  year  (1891) 
and  is  now  in  1907  no  less  than  Rs.  2,08,018  in  spite  of  the 
famine  era  which  has  intervened. 

These  figures  are  remarkable.  Neglecting  the  assessment 
of  1821  as  fixed  at  a  very  low  figure  because  of  the  political 
exigencies  of  the  time,  the  increase  even  since  1868  is  very 
striking.  During  these  40  years  the  zamindars'  total  income 
from  land  and  forests  has  risen  from  Rs.  57,393  to 
Rs.  2,08,018,  while  the  number  of  inhabited  villages  has  in- 
creased from  869  to  1 140,  and  the  population  from  144,391  to 
259,01 1.  The  rights  of  tenants  and  village  headmen  have  been 
recognised  and  recorded.     Village  maps  have  been  prepared, 


ZAMINDARIS.  30/ 

and  in  revenue  matters  the  zamlndaris  have,  since  the  Tenancy 
Act  was  extended  to  them  in  1 889,  been  gradually  brought  into 
line  with  the  rest  of  the  District.  The  usual  complement 
of  police  posts,  cattle  pounds,  liquor  shops  and  schools  com- 
plete the  administrative  picture.  The  people  are  prosperous 
and  satisfied,  their  wealth  is  increasing,  and  their  cultivation 
rapidly  extends.  I'he  zamindars  themselves  have  been  of 
course  the  largest  participants  in  the  general  material  develop- 
ment of  their  estates. 

7.  Side  by  side  with  the  opening  of  this  backward  country, 
as  cultivation  spread  and  prices  rose,  as  trade  in  timber  and 
other  jungle  produce  was  created,  and  as  the  pressure  of 
population  increased,  it  became  necessary  to  resume  gradu- 
ally such  extraordinary  powers  as  these  petty  chiefs  had 
inherited  from  mediaeval  days.  Fitted  no  doubt  to  dispense 
rude  justice  to  the  forest-folk  and  wild  non-Aryan  tribes  who 
alone  peopled  these  estates  in  early  times,  the  zamindars 
under  a  settled  administration  of  a  modern  type  could  hardly 
expect  to  retain  their  old  authorit}^  and  privileges  untram- 
melled. While  enjoying  to  an  unusual  degree  the  material 
benefits  of  a  centralised  government,  they  had  in  fairness  to 
surrender  many  delegated  sovereign  rights  which  under  the 
new  system  became  inherent  in  the  Government.  The  first 
step  in  this  direction  was  taken  as  early  as  1821  when  the 
rights  to  collect  customs  (jt^jv?;-)  and  inflict  capital  punishment 
were  withdrawn  from  such  the  of  zamindars  as  possessed  them. 
But  as  Sir  R.  Jenkins  wrote  *  the  engagements  of  this  date 
'  were  framed  on  the  general  principle  that,  whilst  no  unneces- 

*  sary  sacrifice  of  the  revenue  or  rights  of  Government  should 

*  be  made,  a  liberal  system  should  be  pursued  towards  the 
'zamindars.'  Financial  considerations  were  in  fact  subordi- 
nated to  the  need  for  conciliating  these  petty  cliieftains  in  order 
to  avoid  having  to  coerce  them  'in  parts  of  the  country  unfa- 
vourable to  the  prosecution  of  military  operations.'  Durino- 
the  next  40  years  but  little  ostensible  change  was  made,  but 
as  a  natural  result  of  the  consolidation  of  the  central  power 


308  ZAMINDARIS. 

*  further    restrictions  of  an  indefinite    kind    were    gradually 

*  placed  on  the  zamindars'  exercise  of  administrative  functions.' 
At  last  in  1861  A.D.  Sir  Richard  Temple  reviewed  for  the 
lirst  time  the  whole  question  of  the  zamindari  status.  What- 
ever the  exact  intentions  of  Government  may  have  been,  the 
net  result  of  the  enquiry  was,  firstly,  that  all  the  zamindars 
of  Bilaspur  were  formally  declared  in  1864  to  be  'ordinary 
British  subjects,'  and,  secondly,  that  five  years  later  a  verna- 
cular sanad  was  issued  to  each  zamindar  conferring  on  him 
proprietary  rights  in  his  estate  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
the  '  zamindari  administration  paper.'  This  latter  document, 
as  interpreted  by  the  local  officers  of  the  time,  was  of  so  com- 
prehensive a  character  that  Mr.  Chisholm  (para.  312  of  his 
report)  defined  the  action  q{  the  settlement  as  '  under  sanction 
'  directed  to  recognising  the  zamindari  tenure  in  all  its  pecu- 
'  liMrities  '  and  as  '  maintaining  the  status  quo  ante!  It  announ- 
ced that  the  revenue  fi'om  land,  forests,  abkari  (excise), 
pandJiri  (a  property  tax),  ferries  and  pounds  was  to  be  enjoyed 
by  the  zamindar,  and  that  he  would  maintain  his  own  police, 
it  re-afifirmed  the  immemorial  custom  of  succession  by  primo- 
geniture, and,  in  deference  to  the  general  desire  of  the 
zamindars  themselves,  provided  for  admitting  the  title  of 
widows  to  the  succession  in  default  of  a  more  suitable  direct 
claimant.  The  whole  arrangement  was  one  extrerael}'  favour- 
able to  the  zamindars,  and  was  an  almost  too  generous  con- 
cession to  a  class  of  men  whose  claims  for  consideration  had 
already  become  a  matter  largely  of  sentiment. 

But  even  while  Mr.  Chisholm  wrote  that  the  '  status 
quo  ante  '  was  being  maintained  the  need  for  further  restric- 
tion of  the  zamindari  privilege  had  arisen  in  an  isolated 
case,  and  orders  were  issued  in  1867  to  resume  without 
compensation  the  excise  monopoly  of  Kanteli.  General 
measures  of  this  kind  were  not  taken,  however,  till  20  years 
later,  by  which  time  the  improved  administration  of  the  open 
country  had  begun  to  throw  into  strong  relief  the  inadequate 
provision  made  by  the  zamindars  for  the  proper  management 


ZAMINDARIS.  3O9 

• 

of    their    estates.     The    defects   were   more    negative   than 
positive,  and  were  felt  not   so  much  as    an  injustice  to  the 
people  who  formed  the  population  of  the^amindaris,  as  an 
insuperable  obstacle  to  rapid  administrative  improvement  in 
the   contiguous  areas  under  kJialsa  jurisdiction.     A    number 
of  the  miscellaneous  administrative  privileges  still   left  with 
the  zamindJrs  were  therefore  rapidly   resumed   by  Govern- 
ment.    The  control  of  their  police  was   withdrawn  from   the 
holders  of  the  more  open   estates  in  1888,  and  from  the  rest 
of  the  zamindars  in  1892.     Champa    lost  its  excise  monopoly 
in  1890  and  the  rest  of  ihe  estates   in    1893.     The  manage- 
ment   of    their    pounds   was    resumed    in    1904;   and    their 
collection  of  income  and /(^;<?('2%r/ taxes  was    put  a  stop  to  in 
1902;  and  by  these  successive  steps    the    zamlndaris    were 
absorbed  into  the  routine  administration  of  the  District.    The 
villages  of  their  estates  were  cadastrally   surveyed  between 
1891  and  1897,  and  on  the  basis  of  this  survey  a  resettlement 
on  regular  lines   is   now   in   progress.     The   enquiries   insti- 
tuted   in     connection     with     this    resettlement    exhibit    the 
rapidity  with  which  the  zamindars  have  developed  in  wealth 
and    substance,    in    their  standard    of  comfort   and  in    their 
personal  importance.     During  the  period  through  which    we 
have    sketched    their    history    they  have   changed  from   the 
weakest  and  poorest  of  local  officers  to   well  recognised   and 
substantial   landed  proprietors  ;   and  if  they  reflect  on   this 
may  find  in  it   much  consolation  for  the  loss  of  rights  and 
privileges  inconsistent  witli  the  system  which  has  given  them 
their  wealth. 

8.  It  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  notice  to  give 
an  adequate  account  of  the  general  population  of  the  Bilaspur 
zamlndaris.  Of  the  zamindars  themselves  it  must  suffice  to 
say  that  their  rise  in  the  social  scale  has  been  very  rapid  in 
recent  years,  and  curiously  enough  tiiis  development  exactly 
coincides  with  the  period  of  British  rule.  In  1795  they  were 
simply  *  Cowhier  Chiefs  '  at  the  head  of  a  '  tribe  of  moun- 
taineers.'    In  1826  they  had  become  '  Kawars  who  trace  their 


310  ZAMINDARIS. 

origin  from  the  Doab  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges.'  In  1855 
they  were  '  Kanwars  a  subdivision  of  Rajputs,'  and  so  too  in 
1863  they  were  reported  as  a  '  Kuar  (Rajput)  clan.'  In  1867 
a  further  step  was  recorded  and  besides  claiming  to  be  '  Raj- 
Kawars '  and  '  Kawar-bansTs '  some  claimed  to  be  Tawars. 
At  the  present  time  they  have  all  adopted  the  sacred  thread 
and  call  themselves  simply  Kshattris  oral  least  Tawar  Kshat- 
tris.  But  in  spite  of  all  tiiis  their  aboriginal  descent  is  beyond 
all  question.  It  is  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course  by  the 
Kawar  tribe,  while,  if  proof  be  needed,  we  have  only  to  note 
the  names  of  the  zamlndars'  gotras  which  tally  in  every  case 
witli  the  ^^^/;'rt  names,  not  only  of  the  Kawars  who  are  now 
as  a  community  fairly  well  advanced,  but  also  of  the  Dhanu- 
hars.  The  latter  are  among  the  most  backward  of  all  the 
forest  tribes,  and  are  still  remarkable  for  their  distaste  for 
plough  cultivation  and  a  preference  for  firing  a  patch  of 
forest  in  which  by  the  rudest  methods  possible  ci  scanty  crop 
is  grown.  As  to  the  character  of  the  zamlndars  Sir  Richard 
Temple's  verdict  may  still  be  quoted  as  on  the  whole  a  fair 
one.     The  zamlndars,  he  says,  '  are   well  disposed  but  are  as 

*  unenlightened  as  any  men  in   their  position   could  possibly 

*  be.'  The  general  population  of  the  zamlndaris  is  almost 
wholly  non-Aryan,  and  is  clearly  distinguished  from  the 
low  caste,  but  also  most  probably  non-Aryan,  immigrants 
of  later  date  who  came  to  Bilaspur  from  Rewah  and  Bundel- 
khand.  The  latter  such  as  the  Kurmis,  Telis,  Chamars  and 
village  servants  and  handicraftsmen  (Kumhars,  Dhobis  and 
Lobars)  who  presumably  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  earliest 
Aryan  conquest  of  the  country,  onl}'  occupied  the  open  lands 
of  Chhaltlsgarh,  and  to  this  day  have  made  but  little  eftbrt 
to  intrude  into  the  forests.  Gonds,  Kawars,  Bhainas,  Dhanu- 
bars,  Manjhwars,  Manjhis,  Binjhwars,  Marars,  Pankas,  and 
Gandas,  though  still  forming  collectively  a  large  proportion  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  have  only  maintained  their  pre- 
dominance in  the  hills.  The  racial  separation  seems  .to  be 
marked  by  the  title  of  '  Sirdar '  given  in   the  east  of  the  Dis- 


ZAMINDARIS.  3  I  I 

trict  to  headmen  of  the  Gond,  Kawar,  Bhaina,  Binjhwar  or 
Marar  (Mathwa)  tribes.  Headmen  of  the  kJidlsa  castes  are 
known  by  the  common  appellation  of  Gaontia  It  is  interest- 
ing too  to  note  that  methods  of  agricultural  assessment 
suggest  in  all  the  Kawar  zamlndaris  a  much  closer  connec- 
tion with  the  hilly  tracts  of  Sambalpur  on  the  east  than  with 
those  of  Mandla  on  the  west.  The  old  system  of  plough- 
rates,  so  common  in  Mandla  and  other  Districts,  is  unknown 
in  these  estates.  The  Sambalpur  system  of  assessing 
rice-land,  and  rice-land  onl}',  was  till  lately  universal,  and  is 
still  well  known  in  Matin,  Chhuri  and  Korba  as  in  all  the 
eastern  zamlndaris,  also  of  the  Raipur  District.  Even  in 
Pendra,  which  has  been  largely  occupied  by  Gonds  from 
Rewah  and  Mandla,  the  plough-rate  is  unknown  though 
still  employed  in  the  forests  of  Pandaria.  The  general  social 
life  is  marked  by  simplicity,  by  reciprocal  assistance  in  the 
common  agricultural  and  domestic  duties,  and  by  the  strength 
of  tribal  feeling.  Whole  villages  are  often  held  exclusively 
by  members  of  a  single  tribe,  who  not  only  admit  the  ficti- 
tious village-family  tie  but  are  in  some  cases  all  actually 
related  by  blood  or  marriage  to  the  headman.  The  needs  of 
such  a  people  are  simple,  and  easily  satisfied  in  normal 
years  by  the  common  products  of  field  and  forest.  They 
have  few  extravagances.  Marriages  are  not  costly.  Indeed 
an  arrangement  is  often  entered  into,  by  which  the  suitor 
labours  for  his  prospective  father-in-law  in  payment  for  his 
bride.  Indebtedness  is  seldom  serious.  Drunkenness  is,  for 
a  forest  tract,  comparatively  rare  owing  to  the  predominance 
of  Kabirpanthis  and  of  Paikra  Kawars,  who  in  their  desire  for 
social  advancement  have  long  ceased  to  touch  any  kind  of 
spirit.  Labour  is  plentiful ;  the  common  household  necessi- 
ties, fuel,  grass  and  small  timber  abound  in  every  villa^'e. 
The  tenants'  rents  are  low,  the  facilities  for  the  disposal  of 
their  crops  are  adequate,  and  they  often  supplement  their 
other  income  by  the  propagation  of  lac.  Their  houses  cost 
them    but    a    few  rupees    and    their    clothes    are   sometimes 


3^2  ZAMINDARIS — CHAMPA. 

woven  locally  from  cotton  which  they  grow  themselves. 
The  agricultural  community  is  well  established  and  the  labour 
involved  in  embanking  fields  and  preparing  them  for  rice  has 
long  ago  suppressed  any  tendency,  if  it  ever  existed,  towards 
shifting  cultivation.  The  general  impression  conveyed,  even 
in  such  a  poor  season  as  the  present,  is  that  of  a  simple 
agricultural  people  living,  perhaps,  without  much  thought 
for  the  morrow,  but  certainly  with  no  anxiety    concerning  it. 

9.  A  short  descriptive  account  of  each  zamlndari  is 
now  appended : — 

Champa  Zamindari  •.—Zovwidar—  Ramsaran  Singh, 
son  of'?xQ.\\\  Singh,  by  caste  Tawar  Kshattri,  by  got  r a  Sandil, 
aged  24. 

Distinctions — Seat  in  Darbar ;  Honorary  Magistrate, 
3rd  class  ;  exemption  under  Arms  Act ;  title  of  Dlwan  con- 
ferred under  Native  rule. 

Debts — Rs.  10,000. 

Headquarters,  Champa.  Population    of  zamindari    in    IQOI, 

25.763.    . 

Number  of  villages,  6^. 

Area  of  forest,  about  10  square  miles.     Income  from  villages,  Rs.  20,798. 

Area    occupied  for  cultivation,    about      Income  from  forest,  Rs.  1500. 
40,000  acres. 

Kice  area,  about  29,000  acres. 

Cropped  area,  about  35,000  acres.  Minor  crop  area,  about  3500  acres. 

Total  area   of  the  estate,    105   square     Zamindar's     total    contribution     to 
miles.  Government,  Rs.  36S3. 

This  estate  lies  in  the  extreme  east  of  the  Bilaspur 
District  along  either  bank  of  the  Hasdo  river,  and  covers 
105  square  miles  of  almost  entirely  open  country.  The 
traditional  account  of  its  origin  is  that  the  estate  was  con- 
ferred on  an  ancestor  of  the  zamlndar  by  Raja  Baharsahai 
in  1450  A.D.  on  account  of  militar}'  service,  and  the  family 
tree  shows  the  present  holder  to  be  the  17th  of  the  house. 
But  as  other  accounts  make  it  clear  that  Baharsahai  reigned 
about    1525  A.D. ,  it  seems  most   improbable  that   this  estate 


ZAMINDARIS — CHAMPA.  313 

was  constituted  until  at  least  lOO  years  after  the  traditional 
date.  It  was  originally  known  as  the  Madanpur  chaurdsi, 
having  its  headquarters  at  the  old  fort  of  that  name  on  the 
Hasdo  bank  where  a  few  ruins  are  still  visible. 

The  zamindari  is  unique  as  being  the  only  chaurasi  of 
the  open  country  which  survived  the  Maratha  rule.  How 
this  occurred  is  told  in  a  pelitio.i  presented  by  Bishnath 
Singh,  a  former  zamindar,  to  the  Deputy  Commissioner  of 
Raipur  in  1855,  claiming  37  kJialsa  villages  and  24  villages 
attached  to  Korba  :— '  While  Bimbaji  Bhonsla  ruled  in  Ratan- 

*  pur  a  certain   Muhammad   Khan  Tarin  who  maintained   200 

*  horse  and  500  foot  soldiers  was  serving  as  his  personal 
'Sirdar.  To  this  Sirdar  were  given  the  five '*  Parganas " 
'ofAkaltara,  Lawan,  Kakirda,  Kharod  and  Madanpur.  In 
'accordance  with  this  grant  Muhammad  Khan  established 
'  himself  with  a  military  force  in  Janjgir  which  then  belonged 
'to  Madanpur.      Tliither  the  zamindar  of  Madanpur  byname 

*  Chhatra  Sai  repaired  with  his  two  sons,  and  asked  if  his 

*  estate  were  seized  how  he  and  his  family  were  to  support 
'themselves.  The  Sirdar  replied  that  it  had  been  given  him 
'  as  a  jaglr  in  return  for  his  military  services,  and  he  was 
'  going  to  take  possession  of  it.     If  the  zamindar  objected  he 

*  should  apply  to  the  Raja.  This  Chhatra  Sai  did,  but  was 
'briefly   told  that  the  "  Parganas  "  had   been   given    to  the 

*  Khan  Sahib  who  would  decide  about  his  zamindari. 
'Accordingly  a  further  application  was  made  to  Muhammad 
'  Khan  who  compromised  by  reserving  all  the  well  established 
•villages  for  himself   leaving  the    zamindar    with    only    23 

*  villages  in  the  waste  land  along  either  banl:  of  the  Hasdo 
'  river.     At  the  same  time  the  two  "  Barhons  "  of  Umreli 

*  and  Kothari  were  made  over  to  the  zamindar  of  Korba.  This 
'happened  about  75  years  ago(z.i?.,  circa  1780  A.U.).'  Need- 
less to  say  nothing  came  of  this  petition,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  story  is  in  the  main  a  true  one.  The  two  barhons 
included  in  Korba  are  still  known  as  the  chaublsa  a  later  adjunct 
to  the  estate,  while  three  isolated  villages   near  Janjgir,    still 

ss 


314  ZAMINDARIS — CMIIURI. 

in  Uie  possession  of  the  Champa  zaniindar,  confirm  the  story 
of  his  extended  possessions  in  this  direction  in  former  times. 

The  23  villages  along  the  riverside  left  with  the  zamin- 
dar  in  1780  liavc  since  increased  and  multiplied.  They  had 
risen  to  27  in  1855  and  to  44  in  1867  and  at  the  present  time 
they  number  61.  The  figures  area  striking  instance  of  deve- 
lopment in  a  tract  where  forest  land  is  of  no  account.  Soils 
are  mostly  of  a  sandy  nature,  but  the  villages  are  very  pros- 
perous and  well  cultivated  ;  while  iu  respect  of  trade  and 
communications  this  estate  is  better  situated  than  any  otlier 
in  Chhattisgarh.  Champa  itself  is  a  flourisiiing  town,  one  of 
the  stations  on  the  main  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  which  runs 
through  the  centre  of  the  estate,  and  the  focus  of  a  vigorous 
road  traffic  from  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  It  has  a 
small  trading  population,  and  at  Bamnidih  (9  miles  away)  the 
estate  can  boast  a  bi-weekly  bazar  probably  unrivalled  in  the 
District.  Champa  is  aino  well  known  for  the  quality  of  the 
tasar  silk  (kosn/ii),  woven  by  resident  Koshtas  and  for 
its  workers  in  bell-metal  (Kasers).  There  is  no  proper  forest 
in  this  estate,  the  bulk  of  the  zamlndar's  income  being  derived 
from  his  villages,  all  but  two  of  which  are  under  his  own 
immediate  control.  The  zamlndar  is  a  young  man  who  has  only 
recently  undertaken  the  management  of  his  estate.  There 
are  five  villages  in  the  estate  which  have  more  than  looo 
inhabitants,  v/s.,  Aphrid  (1029),  -Bamnidih  (2746),  Champa 
(4315),  Kosmanda  (ii7Q),  and  Seoni  (1421).  At  all  these 
places  except  Kosmanda  there  are  primary  schools.  There  is 
a  police  outpost  at  Champa.  There  are  no  thekedars  in  this 
estate  ;  two  villages  are  held  b}'  inferior  proprietors,  four  by 
viuaiidars  and  the  rest  by  the  zamlndar. 

Chhuri  Zamindari. — Zamlndar — Mahendrapal  Singh, 
son  ^T/Thaneslnvar  Singh,  by  caste  Tawar  Kshattri,  aged  26 
years,  by  gotra  Atri. 

Distinctions —Seat  in  Darbar ;  exemption  under  Arms 
Act;  title  of  Fardhan  conferred  under  Native  rule.  He  is  an 
Honorary  Magistrate  exercising  3rd  class  powers. 


ZAMINDARIS CHHL'RI.  31$ 

Heir. — Gajendrapal    Singh,     agtd   i8,   full  brother  of 
Mahendrapal  Singh. 
Debts—Nil 

Headquaiters,  Ciihuri.  Fopulatioa  in  lyoi,  21,173. 

Numbei  of  villages,  137.  Income  from  villages,  Rs.  10,787-8-4. 

Area  of  forest,  about  229  square  miles.     Income  from  forest,  Rs.  8591. 

Area   occupied   for  cultivation,  about     Rice  area,  about  21,000  acres. 
35,ouO  acres. 

Cropped  area,  about  30,000  acres.  Minor  crop  area    about  7000  acres. 

Total  area  of  estate,  339  square  .miles.    Zamlndar's  total  contribution  to    Gov- 

erninent,  Rs.  5^61-13-9. 

This  estate  covers  339  square  miles  and  Hes  in  the  Janj- 
gir  tahsll  in  the  centre  of  what  is  known  as  the  '  Kawaran ' 
country,  surrounded  by  others  of  the  '  Seven  Forts.'  The 
zamlndar's  family  claims  of  course  a  very  ancient  title,  but 
has  probably  not  been  in  possession  for  more  than  250  years. 
Raja  Baharsahai  of  Ratanpur,  it  is  said,  repulsed  about  1520 
A.D.  an  irruption  of  Muhammadans  near  an  old  fort  known 
as  Kosgain,  which  was  formerly  the  headquarters  of  this 
zamindari.  This  fort  is  of  considerable  interest.  Some 
accounts  state  that  Baharsahai  built  the  fort,  but  there  is  now 
a  general  consensus  of  opinion  that  it  dates  from  considerably 
before  the  sixteenth  century,  and  may  possibly  have  been  an 
outlying  stronghold  of  the  old  Chedi  kingdom  from  which  the 
Ratanpur  Rajas  descended  into  Chhattlsgarh.  The  local 
story  in  its  modern  form  is  given  in  full  in  the  Volume  of 
the  Archaeological  Survey  of  1874.  This  contains  an  account 
of  how  the  present  '  Clihatri  Chief  of  Chhuri '  wrested 
Kosgain  from  a  Gond  chieftain  by  name  Dama  Dhurwa. 
But  any  attempt  to  credit  a  Gond  with  the  construction  of 
the  fort  is  impossible.  It  is  obviously  of  Hindu  origin,  and 
was  built  no  doubt  to  command  an  old  trade  route,  now  almost 
entirely  forgotten,  which  ran  along  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  Hasdo  from  the  open  country  near  Champa  as  far  as  Kos- 
gain, and  then  wound  its  way  through  the  hills  to  Mirzapur. 
Possibly  this   was  a  petty   Hindu  chieftaincy  conquered  by 


3l6  ZAMINDAKIS— CimURI. 

Baharsahai,  who,  when  the  country  was  secured,  may  have 
entrusted  it  to  the  Gond  family  ofDama  Dhurwa.  But  these 
Gonds  also  subsequently  seceded  from  their  allegiance  to 
Ratanpur,  and  were  put  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire  and  were 
thus  in  turn  ousted  by  the  present  family  of  Kawars.  The 
estate  is  intersected  by  the  Hasdo  river.  On  the  left  bank 
there  is  some  very  wild  mountainous  country  running  up  to 
the  Uprora  border.  On  the  right  bank  the  prospect  is  less 
interesting.  Everywhere  one  finds  a  stretch  of  uneven 
country  covered  with  rapidly  thinning  jungle  interspersed 
with  villages.  The  bulk  of  the  people  are  Kawars  with  a 
certain  number  of  Gond  immigrants  from  Surguja  (known 
here  as  Pachasi  Gonds  for  what  reason  is  not  clear;,  Rawats 
and  Pankas.  There  is  a  very  vigorous  trade  in  lac  in  this 
estate  which  was  well  established  even  in  the  days  when 
the  chief  commercial  value  of  tlie  product  was  as  a  dye.  The 
centre  of  this  trade  is  at  Kathghora,  a  single  village  to  the 
north  of  the  estate  granted  to  a  Bania  in  Maratha  times  and 
held  now  in  niaiguzari  right.  Kosd  cocoons  are  also  largely 
exported  towards  Champa  and  the  khalsa  portions  of  Bilaspur 
and  Janjgir.  The  forests  are  being  rapidly  exhausted  of  their 
timber  by  the  zamindar.  His  father's  extravagance  necessita- 
ted the  zamlndari  being  brought  under  official  control  (Court 
of  Wards  in  1S87)  for  about  15  years,  and  he  is  now  in  enjoy- 
ment of  an  inflated  income  as  a  result  of  this  period  of  careful 
management.  Road  communications  are  not  good,  but  no 
range  of  hills  intervenes  between  this  estate  and  the  open 
khalsa  country,  and  timber  is  conveyed  without  difficulty  to 
the  Champa  station  on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  There 
are  no  villages  containing  more  than  1000  inhabitants,  except 
the  headquarters  town  Chhuri  which  contains  2 141  persons 
and  lies  about  50  miles  north-east  of  Bilaspur.  During 
the  management  of  the  Court  of  Wards  the  roads  and  build- 
ings were  under  the  Cbhattlsgarh  States  Division  of  the 
Public  Works  Department,  and  during  the  ten  years  from 
1893  to    1903   Rs.    3400  were  spent  on    them.     There  is  a 


ZAMINDARIS KANTELI.  31/ 

branch  post  office  and  school  at  Chhuri,  and  police  outposts  at 
Chhuri  and  Chaitma.  Of  the  137  villages  in  this  estate  21 
are  held  directly  by  the  zamlndar,  4  by  rent-free  assignees, 
18  by  inferior  proprietors  and  the  rest  by  thekeddrs,  of  whom 
38  possess  protected  status, 

Kanteli  Zamindari  — Zoinlndd) — Lai  Ranjit  Singh 
soji  of  Thakur  Sahib  Lai,  by  caste  Raj-Gond,  by  gotra  Sandil, 
aged  16. 

Dislinclwns — Seat  in  Darbar. 

Heir — Thakur  Kanhaya  Lai,  son  of  Mangal  Singh, 
aged  38. 

Debts— Nil. 

Headquarters,   Kanteli.  Population   of  zamindari   in     1901,  4715. 

Number  of  \'illages,  44.  Income  from  villages,  Rs.  12,114. 

Area  of  forest,  nil.  Income  from  forest,  nil. 

Area  occupied   for  cultivation,       Rice  area,  5400  acres. 
14,300  acres. 

Cropped  area,  13,400  acres.  Minor  crop  area,  4300  acres. 

Total  area   of  estate,  25  square       ZamTndar's   total    contribution    to  Govern- 
miles.  ment,  Ks.  220O. 

This  estate  like  Chatrpa  is  the  relic  of  an  old  open 
country  zamindari.  The  story  of  its  seizure  by  the  Marathas 
is  told  in  the  statement  of  a  former  zamlndar  recorded  in 
1866: — 'My    forefathers   were   formerly    the    zamlndars    of 

*  Mungeli  whicli  tract  they  held  for  six  generations.  About 
'  68  years  ago  Nana  Sahib,  the  brother  of  RaghujI  I,  came  to 
'  Mungeli  on  his  way  to  Jagannath  Puri.     At  Mungeli  one  of 

*  his  followers  tried  to  seize  a  horse  belonging  to  the  zamln- 
'  dar's  brother.  The  latter  resisted  him,  false  reports  were 
'  made    and    Pliattesingli    the    zamlndar    was    arrested    and 

*  carried  to  Ratanpur.  Nana  Saliib  then  went  forward  on 
'  his  pilgrimage  and  in  his  absence  Kesho  Pant,  the  Subahdar, 
'  blew  Phattesingh  from  a  cannon's  mouth  and  confiscated 
'  the  Mungeli  pargana     The  next  year  the  family  were  given 

*  the  Madanpur  taluk  and  four  years  later  the    Lormi    taluk. 


3l8  ZAMINDARIS — KKNDA. 

'  After  this    my   father   SaiUok   Singh   came  from  Lormi  and 

*  seized    Mungeli.       At    this    time    the    country    was    under 

*  British     officers.       My    father    was    arrested    and    died    in 
'  imprisonment.      I  was  thenacliild  of  eight  years  and  subse- 

*  quently   the  Madanpur  (now  known  as   Kanteli)  zamindari 

*  was  made  over  to  me.     Tliis  tract  was  originally  waste  and 

*  was  a   part  of  the   Mungeli  estate  held   in   my  family  for 
'  generations,  and  first  granted  to  Tarwar  Singh,  my  ancestor, 
'  by  Kalyan  Sahai.  Raja  of  Ratanpur. '    Tlie  Kanteli  zamindari 
of  the  present  time  is  formed  of  three  distinct  groups  of  vill- 
ages numbering  in  all  44  villages  and  covering  altogether  only 
25   square  miles.     It  is  an   integral    part  of  the   surrounding 
kJialsa  country  and  is  of    remarkable  fertility.     No  part  of  it 
is  further  than  12  or  15  miles  from  Mungeli  itself.     It  has  no 
natural    features    of  interest  and   no    important    villages  or 
bazars.     The  estate  has  been  under  Court  of  Wards  manage- 
ment now    for  more  tlian    25  years,  originally  owing  to  tlie 
indebtedness  of  the  estate,  but  latterl}^  owing  to  the  minority 
of  the  zamindar.       The  family  is  an  ancient  one,  distantly 
connected  with    the  Raj-Gond  zamlndars  of  Pandaria   and 
Sahaspur-Lohara.     The    family  in   former  times  were   of   a 
somewhat  turbulent  character.       The  headquarters,    Kantel, 
contains  a  school,  post  office  and  a  police  outpost.     Of  the 
44    villages   two  are  held  by  inferior  proprietors,  12  by  the 
zamindar  direct  and  the  rest  by  thekeddrs,  of  whom  15   have 
received  protected  status. 

Kenda  Zamindari. — Zamindar — Thakur  Chandrbahan 
Singh,  sou  ^Thakur  Ram  Singh,  by  caste  Tavvar,  by gotra 
Telasi,  aged  12. 

Distinctions — Seat  in  Darbar;  exemption  under  Arms 
Act ;  title  of  Thakur  conferred  under  Native  rule. 

Heir — Prasad  Singh,  son  of  Bohit  Singh,  aged  A^O. 

Debts— Nil 

Headquarters,  Kenda.  Population  in  1901,    15,252. 

Number  of  villages,  85.  Income  Irom  villages,  Rs.  5289. 


ZAMINDARIS  — KENDA.  3 '9 

Area  of  forest,  about  231  square  miles.   Income  from  forest,  Rs.  9312. 

Area    occupied    for  cultivation,  28,000   Rice  area,  about  13,500  acres, 
acres 

Cropped  area,  21,500  acres.  Minor  crop  area,  about  7503  acres. 

Total  area  of  estate,  299  square  miles.     Zamindar's    total      contribution     to 

Government,  Rs.  2929-12-0. 

Kenda  is  held  by  a  cadet  of  the  Pendra  house.  The 
circumstances  under  vvliich  this  estate  was  added  to  the 
original  grant  of  Pendra  are  obscure.  One  account  tells 
how,  when  the  Ratanpur  Raja's  army  was  making  a 
night  expedition  against  the  Rewah  king,  the  torches 
failed  for  want  of  oil.  Jaskaran,  a  famous  warrior  and  the 
son  of  Hindu  Singh  of  Pendra,  thereupon  crushed  with  his 
bare  hands  sufificient  mustard  seed  to  make  a  barrelful  of  oil, 
and  was  rewarded  for  this  feat  by  the  grant  of  the  Kenda 
chaurdsi.  The  more  prosaic  story  simply  states  without 
explanation  that  the  third  zamindar  of  Hindu  Singh's  line 
had  two  sons,  tlie  younger  of  whom  named  Sambat  Singh 
was  put  in  charge  uf  Kenda  by  Raja  Takhat  Singh  of  Ratan- 
pur in  Samvat  1691  (A.D.  1634).  This  account  is  probably 
correct,  except  that  as  the  Kenda  family  only  claim  to  have 
held  for  eight  generations  and  Takhat  Singh  reigned 
apparently  from  about  1675  to  1689,  the  probable  date  of  the 
grant  would  be  A.D.  1680. 

The  possession  of  Sambat  Singh's  descendants  has  never 
been  disturbed.  They  accepted  the  change  from  Rajput 
to  Maratha  and  from  Maratha  to  English  rule  without 
demur.  They  kept  the  peace  with  the  Subahs  of  Ratanpur 
and  evinced  their  loyalty  to  our  rule  in  1857,  and  have  thus 
earned  the  peaceful  obscurity  in  which  the  intermediate  his- 
tory of  their  family  is  hidden.  The  estate  covers  299  square 
miles  and  comprises  the  whole  valley  of  the  Arpa  river  (with 
its  tributary  the  Jawas)  from  its  issue  from  the  Komo  range 
to  where  it  debouches  into  the  open  kJialsa  country.  Tiie 
situation  is  a  picturesque  one  owing  to  the  massive  height  of 
the   hills   which   at  every  point  overlook  from  either  side  the 


320  ZAMINDAKIS  —  KENDA. 

level  stretch  of  forest  interspersed  with  viUagcs,  Tlie  zatiiln- 
dar's  original  importance  rested  no  doubt  on  the  fact  that 
through  his  estate  ran  the  great  trade  route  between  Ciihat- 
tisgarh  and  Hindustan  and  the  pilgrim  route  between  Hin- 
dustan and  Jagannath  Furi.  In  the  old  days  this  must  have 
meant  a  good  deal,  for  in  1863  we  know  from  Sir  R. 
Temple's  '  Report  on  the  Malianadi  river  and  adjacent 
countries' tiiat  Rs.  5,32,000  worth  of  exports  and  imports 
were  distributed  between  this  and  one  other  trade  route  bet- 
ween Chhattlsgarh  and  Mirzupur.  The  road  is  still  thronged 
every  year  with  herds  of  buffalo  brought  from  Saugor  and 
other  northern  Districts  to  the  cattle-markets  of  Biliispur  at 
Ganiari  and  elsewhere.  Other  traffic  has  been  absorbed  of 
course  by  the  railway,  whjich  now  runs  parallel  with  the  old 
trade  route  through  Kenda. 

Up  to  40  years  ago  wild  elephants  were  common  in  this 
estate,  and  at  the  present  time  one  solitary  beast  makes  an 
occasional  appearance.  But  no  wild  animals  of  the  larger 
kinds  are  numerous,  as  vigorous  timber-cutting  has  been 
going  on  all  over  the  forests  for  some  years.  The  standard 
of  cultivation  in  the  Kenda  villages  is  fairly  high;  and  to  the 
north  and  south  are  two  small  stretches  of  well  developed 
country.  1  he  middle  of  the  estate  is  mainly  forest.  At  all 
the  railway  stations  there  are  small  communities  of  traders, 
chiefly  Muhammadans,  who  deal  in  lac  and  timber,  prey  upon 
the  simpler  jungle  folk,  and  do  much  to  deprive  the  country 
of  its  primitive  simplicity.  Kotii,  the  southernmost  of  these,  is 
the  most  prosperous  of  all  and  boasts  a  small  match  factory. 
The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  Kawars  and  Gonds.  The 
estate  also  forms  the  eascern  limit  of  the  tract  within  which 
the  Bhumia  tribe  is  found,  at  any  rate  under  this  designation. 
The  estate  contains  two  villages,  viz.,  Amali  and  Kotii,  with  a 
population  of  over  lOOO  persons.  Kenda  itself  is  an  unas- 
suming village,  picturesquely  situated  just  below  the  Komo 
Ghat,  about  8  miles  from  the  Belgahna  railway  station  and 
about    38   from    Bilaspur.      There    is    a  subordinate  police 


ZAMINDARIS  — KORGA.  321 

Station-house  at  Kota  with  an  outpost  at  Kenda.  There  are 
primary  schools  at  BilHband  and  Kota  and  branch  post  offices 
at  Kota  and  Belgahna.  Of  the  85  villages  in  this  estate  2 
are  held  rent-free,  15  are  held  by  inferior  proprietors,  51  by 
thekeddrsy  of  whom  9  have  protected  status,  while  the  remain- 
ing 17  are  under  the  zamlndar's  direct  management. 

Korba  Zamindari — ZainJnddr — Jageshwar  Prasad 
Singh,  soti  <?/Khem  Singh,  by  caste  Tavvar  Kshattri,  by  gotra 
Dhangur,  aged  25. 

Distinctions — Exemption  under  Arms  Act ;  title  of 
Diwan  conferred  under  Native  rule. 

//^/r  — Pardhan,  aged  12  years,  a  ro?^i'/// <?/ Jageshwar 
Prasad  Singh. 

Debts— Nil. 

Headquarters,  Korba.  Population    of    zamindari    in    lyor, 

59,286. 


Number  of  villages,  353. 


Income  from  villages,  Rs.  25,764-3-0. 


Area  of  forest,  about  504    square 

miles.  Income  from  foiest,  Ks.  13,193. 

Area    occupied     for    cultivation,       Rice  area,  about  75,000  acres, 
about  125,000  acres. 

Minor  ciop  area,  about  26,000  acres. 
Cropped  area,  about  105,000  acres. 

Zamlndar's     total     contribution    to 
Total    area    of  estate,  856  square  Government,  Rs.  9282-8-3. 

miles. 

Korba  is  the  largest  of  the  zamlndaris  of  Bilaspur  and 
is  a  varied  tract  of  hill  and  plain,  stretching  from  the  extreme 
north-eastern  limits  of  the  Bilaspur  District,  a  tract  of  wild 
and  mountainous  country,  to  the  open  and  fairly  level  plains 
along  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Hasdo.  It  covers  856 
square  miles.  I  he  origin  of  the  grant  is  unknown.  One 
traditional  account  asserts  that  the  founder  of  the  ICorba 
house  conquered  a  former  Gond  chieftain,  a  feat  identical 
with  that  ascribed  to  the  Chhuri  zamindar,  but  far  less  well 
authenticated  b}'  tradition.  One  thing  is  certain.  Undoubt- 
edly Korba  was  a  comparatively  late  addition  to  the  Ratan- 
pur  kingdom  as  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  extant  lists  of  the 
old  i^  forts   of  Chhattisgarh.     It  is  stated  by  Mr.  ChislioJin 

XT 


322  ZAMINDAKIS — K0R13A. 

without  any  reference  to  authority,  to  have  been  wrested 
from  Surguja  by  Raja  Baharsahai  about  A.D.  1520,  that  is,  at 
the  time  of  his  repulse  of  the  Muhammadans  at  Kosgain  (see 
Chhurij.  Probably  this  tract  was  for  long  a  debatable  land 
between  the  Rajas  of  Ratanpur,  Sambalpur  and  Surguja. 
The  Korba  zamindar,  according  to  tradition,  only  held  at  first 
a  small  tract  v/hich  was  taken  from  a  '  Gauria '  Raja,  the 
remains  of  whose  fortified  headquarters  are  still  pointed  out 
near  Korba  Klids.  From  here  the  Kawar  family  ousted 
oiher  petty  zamindars  from  Ranjita  and  Rampur  and 
encroached  upon  the  territories  of  Kosgain  (Chhuri)  and 
Madanpur  (Champa).  Their  position  at  a  distance  from 
Ratanpur  encouraged  in  them  a  somewhat  unruly  spirit  and 
they  gave  constant  trouble  even  in  Maratha  times.  In  con- 
sequence of  irregularity  in  the  payment  of  takoH  the  estate 
was  resumed  by  Bimbaji  Bhonsla.  His  officials  were,  how- 
ever, driven  out  by  force,  whereupon  he  compromised  by 
accepting  a  sum  of  Rs,  2000  in  cash,  and  restored  the  estate 
to  the  zamindar  Bharat  Singh.  This  zamindfiri  like  Pandaria 
in  the  extreme  west  is  interesting  as  comprising  within  its 
borders  the  widest  extremes  of  social  and  agricultural 
development.  On  the  Surguja  and  Uprora  borders  there 
is  a  large  stretch  of  country  as  wild  and  remote  as  any  in 
Bilaspur.  Though  nothing  is  now  known  of  the  Bindervvas 
— a  cannibal  tribe  rumoured  to  exist  in  this  part  of  the 
world  according  to  Sir  R.  Jenkins'  report  of  1826— yet  the 
Korwas,  Manjhis  and  Saontas  who  are  found  there  now  are 
certainly  as  backward  as  any  tribe  in  Chhattisgarh..  Of  the 
Saontas  it  is  said  tliat  when  a  member  of  the  tribe  falls  ill 
beyond  hope  of  recovery  he  is  bound  hand  and  foot  to  the 
bed  on  which  he  lies.  All  those  who  live  in  the  same 
village  collect  their  goods,  set  fire  to  the  house  in  which  the 
dying  man  is  laid  and  flee  for  their  lives  to  another  part  of 
the  forest.  By  this  means  they  destroy  the  evil  spirit  in  the 
sick  man  and  prevent  its  transference  on  his  deatli  to  another 
of  the  tribe.     Manjhis  and  Korwas  have  still   the  reputation 


2AMINDARIS — KOREA.  323 

of  having  been  cannibals  not  many  3'ears  ago.  In  particular, 
the  flesh  of  old  people  met  their  fancy,  it  is  said,  for  these 
being  of  a  'ripe'  age  {pak  gayd)  were  mo=:t  naturally 
plucked  and  eaten.  At  another  extreme  we  find  along  the 
>^//(7/5a  border  to  the  south  of  the  estate  open  closely  cultivated 
villages  which  vie  in  fertility  with  some  of  the  most  prosperous 
portions  of  the  District,  and  are  held  by  the  mixed  Hindu 
castes  of  this  part  of  the  country  ;  while  intermediate  between 
the  two  we  have  half  a  dozen  grades  of  forest  villages,  tribal 
settlements  and  semi-open  villages  increasing  in  stability 
and  importance  as  one  passes  from  the  north-west  to  the 
south-east  of  the  estate. 

Under  proper  management  this  zamindari  would  be  the 
most  wealthy  in  the  District.  Excluding  iron-ore  and  coal 
which,  with  all  other  minerals,  are  the  property  of  Govern- 
ment, the  estate  contains  an  unusually  large  area  of  sal 
forest.     A  report  by  Sir  R.  Temple  in  1863  speaks  of  a  'vast 

*  sal  forest,  300  square  miles  in  extent,  one-fourth  of  which  may 

*  be  considered  as  first  class  timber.'  But  reckless  mismanage- 
ment and  extravagant  over-cutting  have  done  untold  damage 
to  the  estate.  At  present  the  zamindar  derives  on  bis  own 
showing  an  annual  income  of  only  7  pies  per  acre  from  his 
forests.  The  estate  is  picturesque,  being  overlooked  by  the 
hills  of  both  Saktl  and  Uprora.  The  people  are  mostly  Kawars 
and  Korwas  in  the  forest,  while  nearly  every  caste  is  represen- 
ted in  the  more  open  villages.  There  is  a  well-known  Kablr- 
panthl  shrine  at  Kudarmal  a  few  miles  south  of  Korba 
Klias  at  which  an  important  fair  is  held  each  year  in  Febru- 
ary. At  the  fair  children  and  other  novices  are  made  Kablr- 
panthis.  Communications  with  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway 
are  easy,  although  no  good  roads  are  maintained  in  this 
estate.  The  southern  open- country  villages  lie  within  a 
distance  of  6  miles  of  the  Champa  station  on  the  Bengal- 
Nagpur  Railway  line  where  large  quantities  of  grain  are  sold 
and  exported.  Cultivation  generally  is  fairly  well  developed 
and  rents  are  ver}'  low.     The  practice  of  sowing  rice  by 


324  ZAMINDARIS  —  LAPHA. 

transplantation  is  universal  in  the  jungle  country,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  it  is  immediately  abandoned  as  the 
country  becomes  clear  of  forest.  Wood  for  firing  in  the 
seed-bed  then  becomes  more  difficult  to  obtain,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  weeds,  vvliich  this  method  is  mainly  intended 
to  remove,  automatically  decrease  and  form  a  less  serious 
obstacle  to  the  growing  rice. .  The  Sambalpur  system  by 
which  the  tenants  jointly  accept  responsibility  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  who'e  village  assessment  to  the  gaonlia  is  still 
well  known  in  the  more  backward  portions  of  this  estate,  and 
is  an  interesting  survival  of  a  method  of  assessment  which 
we  know  was  one  time  universal  in  the  Bilaspur  District. 
The  zanilndar  is  a  young  man  whose  extravagance  and  failure 
to  realise  the  responsibilities  of  his  position  have  recently 
brought  him  into  official  disfavour.  He  has  no  children, 
His  next  of  kin  is  a  cousin  whom  it  is  curious  to  note  has 
been  given  a  title  in  the  family  circle,  but  has  as  yet  no  name 
although  he  is  12  years  of  age.  The  reason  is  a  supersti- 
tious one,  to  elude  the  pursuit  of  evil  spirits  which  it  is 
asserted  destroyed  the  other  children  of  the  same  parents. 
Except  Korba  itself  there  is  no  other  village  which  has  more 
than  1000  inhabitants.  The  headquarters  station  with  a 
population  of  1835  in  1901  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hasdo  river,  about  23  miles  to  the  north  of  Champa  railway 
station.  There  is  a  primary  school,  a  branch  post  office  and 
a  police  Station-house  here.  There  is  also  a  police  outpost 
at  Rampur.  Of  the  353  villages  in  the  estate  3  are  held  by 
rent-free  assignees,  60  by  inferior  proprietors,  106  direct  by 
the  zamindar  and  the  rest  by  thekeddrs,  of  whom  67  have 
gained  protected  status. 

Lapha  Zamindari. — Zamindar — Daharaj  Singh,  son  of 
Raghunath  Singli,  by  cask  Tawar,  by  gotra  Gangakachul, 
aged  C'i. 

Dislinclions — Seat  in  Darbar ;  Honorary  Magistrate,  3rd 
class;  exemption  under  Arms  Act ;  title  of  Diwan  confer- 
red under  Native  rule. 


ZAMINUARIS LAPHA.  325 

Heir — Ramsaran  Singh,  i<on  o/Daharaj  Singh,  aged  7. 
Debts— Nil. 

Headquarters,  Tartuma.  Population  in  lyoi,  12,017. 

Number  of  villages,  86.  Income  from  villages,   Rs.  5226-13-3. 

Area     of    forest,    about    259    square     Income  from  forest,   Rs.   5723. 
miles. 

Rice  area,  about  11,000  acres. 
Area  occupied   for   cultivation,  about 

21,000  acres.  Minor  crop  area,  about  3500  acres. 

Cropped  area,  about  17,000  acres. 

ZamTndar's  total  contribution  to  Gov- 
Total  area  of  estate,  359  square  miles.         ernment,  Rs.  2805-4-4. 

This  estate  hes  on  the  edge  of  the  open  plain  of  Bilas- 
pur,  its  southern  border  being  only  some  2  or  3  miles  north  of 
Ratanpur,  It  contains  some  ancient  monuments  of  consider- 
able interest— a  fort  at  Laphagarh  ;  a  temple  at  Pali,  and  the 
relics  of  an  ancient  town  at  Tumana  behind  the  hills  towards 
the  Uprora  border  to  which  reference  has  been  made  else- 
where. The  Lapha  zammdari  was  a  creation  of  the  Haihaya- 
v^ansi  kings  long  after  they  were  established  in  Ratanpur. 
But  the  family  history  is  obscure,  as  the  zamlndar  claims 
to  be  a  full-Llown  Kshattri3'a  who  came  from  Delhi  more  than 
a  thousand  years  ago.  These  absurd  pretensions  involve 
the  suppression  of  the  historical  origin  of  the  grant.  He 
possesses  a  copper-plate  inscription  which  has  recently 
been  examined  hy  Mr.  Hira  I.aU  and  declared  by  him 
to  be  a  forgery.  This  plate  purports  to  convey  the  grant 
by  Raja  Prithvldevaof  120  villages  to  Lunga  Rao,  an  ancestor 
(so  it  is  said)  of  the  present  zamlndar.  It  is  dated  Samvat 
806,  and  would  thus  require  one  to  believe  that  the  present 
family  have  been  in  possession  of  the  Lapha  zamlndari  for 
the  last  1 160  years.  The  zamlndar  apparently  believes  that 
the  inscription  is  a  genuine  one.  But  he  himself  onl}-  claims 
to  have  held  the  estate  for  21  generations  while  his  father  in 
1855  claimed  only  16.  Either  of  these  figures  is  an  exaggera- 
tion and  both  together  would  fail  to  bridge  the  enormous  gap 
of  1 160  3'ears  since  the  alleged  creation  of  the  estate.     Lapha 

^  Epigraphia  Indica,  Vol.  IX,  page  293  and  following. 


326  ZAMINDARIS  —  I.APIIA. 

is  dmong  the  smaller  of  the  zanilndaris  and  covers  369  square 
miles.  More  than  half  of  the  estate  to  the  north  is  very 
wild,  and  is  thinly  populated  by  Manjhis,  Mahatos,  Binjhwars, 
Dhanulifirs  and  other  backward  aboriginal  tribes.  Along  the 
kJiahn  border  tliereare  a  number  of  fairly  prosperous  villages 
lield  most!}'  by  Kawars,  Gondsand  Rawats,  but  even  here  the 
ground  is  uneven  and  soils  poor,  and  the  standard  of  cultiva- 
tion is  not  very  high.  Only  one  village  (Pondi)  has  a 
population  of  more  than  icoo  persons.  Fair-weather  tracks 
connect  the  estate  with  Kenda  and  Korba. 

An  important  high  road  runs  from  Chhuri  and  Kathghora 
on  the  old  Mirzapur  trade  route  through  the  Lapha  estate  to 
Ratanpur.  The  Lapha  jungles  are  a  favourite  resort  of 
those  in  need  of  house  timber,  and  are  unique  in  being  fairly 
well  preserved  from  reckless  over-cutting.  There  is  abundant 
iron-ore  found  at  the  village  of  Burbur  and  a  number  of 
Agarias  make  their  living  by  it.  The  zamlndar's  headquarters 
are  at  Tartuma  (known  also  as  Lapha),  a  village  with  a  popu- 
lation of  665,  situated  below  Laphagarh  and  about  25  miles  east 
of  the  Belgahna  station  in  the  Kenda  zamlndari.  It  is  however 
most  conveniently  approached  through  Ratanpur.  The  hills 
are  picturesque.  The  best  known  are  Chitorgarh  (on  which 
Lapha  fort  is  built),  Palma,  and  Dhitori — all  of  them,  according 
to  the  popular  belief,  relics  of  the  Pandava  Bhimsen.  He 
was  out  gathering  fruits  and  herbs  with  one  basket 
{dhitot'i)  in  his  hand,  and  two  more  slung  on  a  yoke  across 
his  shoulder.  Suddenly  hearing  that  his  house  was  on  fire 
he  dropped  them  where  they  lie  to  this  day,  and  fled  home. 
The  conversion  of  these  relics  into  hill  and  rock  is  no  matter 
of  astonishment  to  the  local  peasant.  It  is  believed,  and 
unhesitatingly  believed  by  the  common  people  that  the  gods 
and  heroes  who  walked  the  earth  in  the  *Satyug'  still  live 
in  the  stone  images  found  in  old  ruins  and  temples  scattered 
here  and  there  about  the  countryside.  Every  old  ruin  belongs 
to  the  days  of  old  when,  according  to  their  simple  cosmology, 
Ramchandra  and  the  Pandavas  created  the  earth  gradually  by 


ZAMINDARIS — MATIN.  Z'^7 

hurling  the  mountains  into  the  sea.  As  they  worked  they 
dug  tanlvs  and  threw  up  temples  to  bear  their  names  through 
the  ages,  and  then  having  fashioned  the  country  for  tl:e 
succeeding  generations  of  mankind  were  gradually  frozen 
into  stone  by  their  ingratitude  and  wickedness.  There  are 
in  all  86  villages  in  the  Lapha  zamindari ;  3  are  held  rent-free 
by  assignees,  12  by  subproprietors,  29  by  the  zamlndar 
direct,  and  the  remaining  42  by  thekeddrs,  of  whom  5  have 
gained  protected  status. 

Maiin  Zdivn'\n6.a.v\.  —  Zannnddrm — Musammat  Kanchan 
Kuar,  widow  of  GajrQp  Singh,  by  caste  Kawar,  by  gotra 
Tilasi,  aged  55. 

Distinctions  of  late  zamlndar — Exemption  under  Arms 
Act ;  title  of  Dlwan  conferred  under  Native  rule. 

Heir — Disputed. 

Debts—Nil. 

Headquarters,  Matin.  Population  in  1901,  11,755. 

Number  of  villages,  91.  Income  from  villages,  Rs.  3,444. 

Area  of  forest,  about  455  square  miles.   Income  from  forest,  Rs.  6,618. 

Area    occupied  for   cultivation,    about     f! ice  area,  about  8000  acres. 

ic,ooo  acres. 
Cropped  area,  about  13,000  acres.  Minor  crop  area,  about  4500  acres. 

Total  area  of  estate,  544  square  miles.    Total     contribution  to     Government, 

Hs.  1, 331-7-9- 
This  is  another  zamindari  held  by  a  cadet  of  the  Pendra 
house.  The  early  history  of  the  estate  is  interesting  because 
we  have  here  incontrovertible  evidence  of  a  Raj-Gond  zamln- 
dar who  preceded  the  Kawar  family.  The  descendants  of 
this  Gond  zamlndar  still  live  at  the  village  of  Sirri  on  the 
north-west  border  of  Matin,  and  claim  to  have  been  settled 
there  for  22  generations.  Till  within  quite  recent  years  they 
held  an  entire  barhon  or  tdlnk  of  twelve  villages,  which  they 
retained  when  they  lost  their  hold  on  the  c/ianrdsi.  Their 
former  tenure  of  tlie  estate  is  admitted  by  the  present  liolders. 
The  traditional  account  relates  that  in  Samvat  1699  (A.D. 
1642)  Kalyan  Singh,  a  younger  son  of  the  Uprora  zamlndar 
Himmat  Rai,  occupied  Matin,  probably  by  force,  as  there  is  a 


328  ZAMINDARIS — MATIN. 

tradition  that  lie  was  afterwards  murdered  by  Tarphana 
Gond  (of  Sirri),  his  predecessor.  The  estate  is  said  to  have 
been  confirmed  in  Kalyan  Singh's  possession  by  Raja  Raj 
Singh,  the  last  but  two  of  the  HailiayavansI  house,  who 
reigned  from  about  1699  to  1720  A. D.  We  may  therefore 
fix  the  date  of  the  Gond's  dispossession  at  about  the  same 
period. 

Ihe  estate  is  in  many  ways  similar  to  Uprora  with 
which  it  is  so  closely  connected.  It  is  situated  on  the  uplands 
of  the  Vindiiyan  range  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  Dis'.rict 
and  shares  with  Uprora  O.'.c  pride  of  place,  as  the  wildest  of 
all  the  Bilaspur  zamlndaris.  Its  dismal  reputation  among 
the  patwaris  of  the  District  is  expressed  in  the  doggerel 
verse — 

Za]ir  piyc  na  uiahiir  khae, 
Mare  ke  hoe  to  Matin  jae. 
♦See  Matin — and  die.'  Certainly  the  average  Hindu  finds 
little  to  attract  him  in  this  stretch  of  country,  and  the  pres- 
sure of  population  at  the  last  census  was  only  22  to  the 
square  mile.  It  is  therefore  all  the  more  curious  to  find  that 
this  was  the  first  and  only  zamlndari  of  Bilaspur  visited  and 
described  by  a  European  during  the  eighteenth  century.  This 
unique  account  is  contained  in  a  Diary  descriptive  -of  his 
journey  from  Chunargarh  to  Rajahmundry  written  by  Cap- 
tain Blunt  in  1795.  The  following  quotation  from  it  is  of 
interest  as  showing  the  very  primitive  condition  both  of  the 
Kawar  zamlndars  and  of  their  people  only  a  century  ago:  — 

*  We  arrived  this  day  at  Pory,  having  left  some  lofty 
'  ranges  of  hills  to  the  westward.  At  this  place  a  CoivJiier 
''  chief  came  to  visit  me  ;  or  rather  his  curiosity  brought  him 
'  to  see  a  white  man.  He  was  accompanied  by  his  son,  and 
'  grandson  ;  both  stout  and  large  limbed  men  for  mountaineers, 
'  though   not  so  well   shaped  as  the   Gonds.     We  stared    at 

*  each  other  a  little  while ;  for  our  languages  being  totally 
'  unintelligible  to  each  other,  we  could  hold  no  conversation 
'  until  a  Bvraghr  JuiArer  who  had  wandered  into  these  wilds, 


ZAMINDARIS — MATIN.  329 

'tendered  his  services  as  interpreter.  All  that  I  could 
'collect  from  this  chief  was  that  in  these  mounlains  there 
'  are  seven  small  districts,  called  Chowrasseys,  containing 
'nominally  eighty-four  villages  ;  but  that,  in  reality,  not  more 
'  than  fifteen  were  then   in   existence^     That  they    were   all 

*  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Purgunnah  of  MaJitin 
'  and  that  the  tribute  they  paid  to  the  MaJiratta  Government, 
'  which  consisted    in   grain,  was    very  inconsiderable.     The 

*  Mahrattas  kept  it  up  to  retain  their  authority  among  the 
'mountaineers,  who,  if  not  kept  in  subjection,  were  con- 
'siantly  issuing  into  the  plain  country  to  plunder.  I  inquired 
'of  him,  if  there  had  ever  existed  a  CozvJiicr  Rajah  or 
'independent  chief  of  any  kind;  to  which  he  replied,  that 
'  the  country     had    formerly    been     subject    to    the    Reiuah 

*  Rajah  of    Bogalecund,  and    that,   about   thirty  years  since, 

*  the  Mahrattas  had  driven  him  out ;  having  in  the  contest 

*  very   much    impoverished    and    depopulated    the    country. 

*  The  conversation  was  carried  on  under  much  disadvant- 
*age;    for    it  was    evident    our    interpreter    undeistood   but 

*  imperfectly     the     language     of    Cowhier.     The    old    man, 

*  whose  attention  had  been  chiefly  attracted  by  a  Ravniaghur 
'  Jl/orah,'^  of  which  he  was  desirous  to  know  the  construction, 
'  being  satisfied  as  to  that  point,  now  took  his  leave,  and  depart- 
'ed.  We  arrived  at  MaJitin  about  an  hour  before  noon,  and 
'encamped  on  the  east   bank  of  the  river    Taty.     Near  this 

*  place  (bearing  north  about  one  mile  distant)  is  a  very  pic- 
'  turesque  mountain,  called  by  the  Cozuhiers,  j\Iohti?i  Dcy, 
'  With  my  telescope  I  discovered  a  little  flag  on  the  summit 
'of  it;  and   on  inquiring   the  reason,  I  was  informed  that  it 

*  was  to  denote  the  residence  of  the  Hindoo  Goddess  Bhavani. 

*  This  day  being //^c/^,^  the  mountaineers  were  celebrating 
'the  festival,  by  singing,  and  dancing,  in  a  very  rude  manner, 
'  to  the   sound  they   produced  by  beating  a  kind  of  drum, 


^  That  is  presumably  in  the  case  only  of  the  Matin  Chauiasi. 

2.  A  kind  of  stool,  made  of  wicker  work,  and  cotton  thread. 

3.  A  Hiadu  festival  at  the  spiing. 

UU 


330  ZAMINDARIS — MATIN. 

*  made  witli  a  skin  stretched  over  an  eartl.cn  pot.  Tliey 
'seemed  to  be  totally  uninformed  as  to  the  origin  or  meaning 
*of  the  festival;   nor   was  there  a  .5;'^//;;/««  among  them,  to 

*  afford  them  any  information  on  that  subject.  I  am  inclined 
'  to  think  that  they  are  a  tribe  of  low  I:iindus  ;  but  being  so 
'very  illiterate,  and  speaking  a  dialect  peculiar  to  themselves 
'any  inquiries  into  their  history,  manners,  and  religion  would 
'  have  been  little  satisfactory.'  There  are  at  the  present 
time  a  few  good  villages  in  the  north-east  of  the  estate,  but 
elsewhere  the  country  is  as  a  rule  too  undulating  and 
irregular  to  permit  of  extended  cultivation.  There  is  a  Koman 
Catholic  Mission  at  Pasan,  a  good  village  near  the  western 
border.  A  fair  road  constructed  when  the  estate  was  under 
Court  of  Wards  (from  1878  — 1891 )  runs  through  it  connecting 
Matin  with  Pendraon  the  west  and  Chhuri  on  the  south-east. 
The  jungles  are  valuable  and  extensive  though  they  are 
being  rapidly  deprived  of  all  good  timber  by  a  succession  of 
contractors.  Dahia  cultivation  and  the  practice  of  ringing 
sal  trees  for  resin  are  also  permitted  and  must  involve  a 
great  deal  of  waste.  Elephants  were  formerly  very  common, 
and  khedda  operations  took  place  here  in  1867  and  also 
about  1884.  The  animals  are  now  scarce  and  do  no  very 
serious  damage  to  cultivation.  The  estate  has  been  con- 
siderably affected  by  the  opening  of  the  Katnl  Branch  line, 
which,  though  30  miles  distant,  is  still  easily  accessible  for 
carts ;  and  should  be  capable  of  good  development  even 
though  the  culturable  area  must  always  be  somewhat  limited. 
Unfortunately  there  are  now,  and  have  been  for  the  last  40 
years,  continuous  disputes  about  the  title  of  rival  claimants 
to  succeed  the  widows  of  the  last  zamlndar.  Feelings  have 
long  been  embittered  and  in  consequence  the  management 
of  the  estate  has  been  defective.  The  advisability  of  putting 
some  official  restraint  upon  the  zamlndarin's  management 
is  under  consideration  at  the  present  time.  There  is  no 
village  in  the  estate  which  contains  more  than  1000  persons. 
Matin  itself  contains  300.      There  are  no  schools.     There 


ZAMINDARIS  — PANDARIA.  33  I 

is  one  police  outpost  at  Matin,  Of  the  91  villages  in  this 
estate  3  are  held  by  inferior  proprietors,  75  by  thekeddrs- 
of  whom  15  have  protected  status,  while  13  are  managed 
directly  by  the  zamlndar. 

Pandaria  Zamindari  : — Zammddr — Raghuraj  Singh, 
son  ^/Gajpal  Singh,  by  caste  Raj-Gond,  by  gotra  Pulastya, 
aged  30. 

Distinctions — Seat  in  Darbar  ;  Honorary'  Magistrate,  2nd 
class;  exemption  under  Arms  Act;  title  of  Thakur  conferred 
under  Native  rule. 

Debts— Nil. 

Headquarters,  Pandaria.  Population    of    zamindari    in     1 901, 

49,222. 

Number  of  villages,  301.  Income  from  vil'ages,  Ks.  62,303. 

Area  of  forest,  about  191  square  miles.   Income  from  forest  Rs.  13,096. 

Area  occupied  for  cultivation,  158,631     Rice  area,  29,43a  acres. 

acres. 
Cropped  area,  89,741  acres.  Minor  crop  area,  30,880  acres. 

Total  area  of  estate,  487  square  miles.     Zaniindar's    total      contribution    to 

Governmeut,  Rs.  30,580. 

The  Pandaria  estate  lies  in  the  extreme  west  of  the 
District  in  the  Mungelf  tahsll.  Its  length  from  north  to 
south  is  32  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  23  miles.  The 
northern  half  is  forest  and  hill,  but  the  southern  half  forms 
a  fine  spread  of  open  country  of  first-class  agricultural 
capacity.  The  old  headquarters  of  the  estate  were  at 
Kamthi — a  village  now  in  the  heart  of  the  forest  country. 
There  are  relics  there  of  an  ancient  settlement.  It  is  said 
that  many  old  sculptured  stones  were  removed  to  Setgangii, 
a  village  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  estate  in  open 
country,  to  construct  the  modern  shrine  which  now  stands 
there.  In  Kamthi  itself  a  stone  image  of  a  tiger  is  almost  the 
only  object  of  interest  which  now  survives.  This  has  been 
referred  to  in  other  accounts  as  a  '  tiger  god  '  the  relic  of  an 
aboriginal  cult.  But  this  is  doubtful ;  possibly  it  guarded  the 
Singh  Darvvaza,  or  main  entrance  of  some  old  fortification. 
Pandaria  is  the  premier  zamindari  of  the  Bilaspur  District 
and  holds  a  unique  position  as  the  only  estate  included  in  the 


332  ZAMINUARIS — PANDARIA. 

District   wliicli   was   never   a    chaurdsi  of  the  Haihayavansi 
kingdom.     Il  never   became  an  integral  part  of  Clilialtisgarh 
proper,  and  lience  does  not  appear  in  the  more  authentic  lists 
of  the  old  36  forts.     According  to  the  traditional  history  this 
tract  of  country  was  originally  held  by  a  Lodhi  chieftain  who 
owed  allegiance  to  the   kings  of  Garha  Mandlfi.      But  in  1546 
A.D.  he    rebelled  against  his  master,  who  put  him  to  *  tlie  ban 
of  the  Empire '  and   eventually    secured  his    overthrow  at  tlie 
hands  of  a  certrun   .Sham  Chand,  a  Raj-Gond  and  an  ancestor 
of  the  present  zamindar   of   Pandaria.      With   the  consent  o' 
the  subordinate  Raja  of  Lanji,  Shun  Chand  was  confirmed  in 
his  possession  of  Pandaria,  which  was  then  known  as  Miihct- 
pur  Pratabgarh.     Dalsai,  the  seventh  in  direct  descent   from 
Sham  Chand,  had  two  sons,  PirthI   Singh  and  Mahabali,  the 
3'ounger  of  whom  received  the  estate  of  Kawardha  about  A.  D. 
1760.      The  Pandaria  zamlndari   is  said  to  have  been  in  the 
possession  of  the  present   family    for  the  last  14  generations. 
The  zamindar   is  a   Raj-Gond    of  distinguished  lineage.    He 
claims  connection  by  blood  with  the  Raja  of  Makrai,  and  by 
marriage  with  the  chief  of  Sarangarh,  and  the  zamindars  of 
Phuljhar    and    Kanteli.     Members    of   his    family    hold    the 
zamindari  of  Sahaspur  as  well  as  Kawardha  and  Pandaria. 
Pandaria,  or  Mukutpur  Pratabgarh,  seems  throughout  its  his- 
tory to  have  been  a  debatable  ground  between  the  kingdoms 
of  Garha  Mandla,  Lanji  and  Chhattlsgarh,  and  tradition  says 
that  there  v/ere  constant  disputes  as  regards  the  title  to  claim 
its  tribute.     A  Pratabgarh  was  mentioned  in  an  old  Haihaya 
Revenue  Book  as  one  of  the  old  Ratanpur  Tributary  States, 
and  as  it  is    mentioned  in  conjunction    with  Ramgarh  it  may 
with  some  probability  be  identified  with  Pandaria^    But  local 
tradition  all  favours  the  connection  with  Garha  Mandla.   How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  is  fairly  clear  that  tiie  division  of  authority 
bred    a  spirit    of  insubordination    in   the  zamlndlrs  of  this 
estate.     In  1795  Captain  Blunt  records  the    information  that 
'  ever    since    the    Mahrattas   had    attempted    to    subdue   the 

^  Elliot's  Kaipur  Settlement  Report,  para.  56. 


ZAMINDARIS PANDARIA.  333 

t Pcrtahgur  Goands  who  inhabit  the  ills  tho  the  westward  of 

*  Ruttinipour,   there    had  been  a  continual   warfare   between 
'them,'    and   in   fact  it  was   a  danger  of  molestation  by   the 

*  Pertdbgarh  Goand  Rdjd'  which  compelled  him  to  relinquish 
'with  much  mortifying  reflection  and  disappointment'  his 
intended  visit  to  Amarkantak.  Again,  when  the  flight  of  Appa 
Sahib  in  1818  was  the  signal  for  general  disturbances  through- 
out tlie  Nagpur  country,  these  disturbances  received  '  some 
countenance  but  not  openly  '  from  the  zamlndarof  Pandaria  ; 
and  once  more  in  the  Mutiny  times  the  family  was  suspected 
of  intriguing  with  the  Sohagpur  rebels.  When  therefore  the 
position  of  the  various  estate  holders  was  reviewed  by  Sir  R. 
Temple,  the  status  of  feudatory  chief  conferred  on  the  junior 
branch  of  the  family  in  Ka  ward  ha  was  not  extended  to  Pan- 
daria;  and  this  fine  estate  has  thus  under  our  rule  come  to  be 
classed  with  zamlndaris  which  originally  held  a  far  less  inde- 
pendent position.  Since  the  formation  of  the  Bilaspur  Dis- 
trict the  zamindar's  mismanagement  and  extravagance  have 
more  than  once  brouglit  the  estate  under  Government  control, 
from  which  it  was  finally  released  only  eight  years  ago.  But 
the  estate  still  holds  the  foremost  place  among  the  Bilaspur 
zamlndaris.  The  southern  half  is  a  continuation  of  the  open 
fertile  country  of  the  Mungell  tahsll,  and  thus  forms  a  part  of 
what  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  finest  expanses  of  cul- 
turable  land  in  the  Provinces.  Communications  are  excellent, 
good  roads  connecting  Pandaria  with  Kawardha  and  Mungell, 
and  also  vid  Lormi  with  the  Kargi  Road  railway  station  on 
the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  Large  sums  were  spent  on 
public  works  while  the  estate  was  under  Court  of  Wards. 
Matters  were  during  that  period  under  the  control  of 
the  Chhattlsgarh  States  Division  of  the  Public  Works 
Department  and  between  1893  and  1QO3  Rs.  67,968  were 
spent  on  roads  and  buildings.  Hence  Pandaria  is  almost 
unique  as  a  zamindar's  headquarters  which  is  in  appearance 
something  more  than  an  ordinary  cluster  of  mud-walled 
houses. 


334  ZAMINDARIS — PENDRA, 

The  people  are  prosperous  in  spite  of  most  amazing 
losses  in  the  famines  of  1897  and  1900.  The  bulk  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Kunnis,  ChamTirs  and  Kshattris.  There  is  a 
traditional  hostiiit}'  between  the  two  castes  last  mentioned 
which  is  maintained  especially  in  those  villages  where  a 
Kshattri  headman  is  introduced  as  a  check  upon  a  body  of 
unruly  Chamar  tenants.  The  jungles  are  valuable  and  fairly 
well  preserved.  Lac  is  an  important  minor  product,  and  its 
cultivation  is  controlled  by  a  European  firm  now  established 
here  for  several  years.  Much  of  the  forest  land  is  very 
wild.  Indeed  the  most  striking  feature  of  the  zamindari  lies 
in  the  remarkable  extremes  of  social  and  agricultural  develop- 
ment which  are  found  within  this  area  of  487  square  miles 
A  single  march  takes  one  from  an  open  densely  populated 
and  thriving  agricultural  tract  to  mountains  and  forests 
towards  the  Mandla  border  famed  as  a  home  for  tigers,  and 
inhabited  by  probably  the  most  backward  forest  tribe  in  the 
Central  Provinces.  There  are  only  two  villages  in  the 
zamindari  which  have  more  than  1 000  inhabitants,  zv'r.,  Pan- 
daria  (3322)  and  Pandatarai  (1269).  There  is  a  police 
Station-house  at  Pandaria  and  outposts  at  Dullapur  and 
Pendri.  There  is  a  vernacular  middle  school  and  a  girls'  pri- 
mary school  at  Pandaria,  and  primary  schools  at  Pandatarai, 
Khapri  Kalan  and  Kunda,  There  are  post  offices  at  Pandaria 
and  Pandatarai.  Of  the  301  villages  of  the  estate,  23  are  under 
direct  management,  three  are  held  by  inuafiddrs  and  nenirmk- 
ddrs,  32  by  inferior  proprietors  and  243  by  thckeddrs,  of 
whom  109  have  been  granted  protected  status. 

Pendra  Zamindari. — Zainlnddrin — Musammat  Bhup 
Kunwar  Thakurain,  zuidozu  of  Indrapal  Singh  also  called 
Upendra  Das  Singh,  by  caste  Tawar  (Kshattri),  bygotra 
Kairav,  aged  32. 

Distinctions  of  late  zamlnddr — Seat  in  Darbar  ;  exemp- 
tion under  Arms  Act ;  title  of  Lai  conferred  under  Native  rule. 

Heir — Musammat  Chandan  Kunwar,  2iid  icidoiu  of 
Upendra  Singh,  aged  27. 


ZAMINDARIS — PENDRA.  335 

Debts— Rs.  3000. 

Headquarters,  Pendra.  Population  zamlndari    in   1901, 

53.370- 
Number  of  villages,  210. 

Income  from  villages,  Rs.  10,409. 
Area  of  forest,  about  461  square  miles. 

Income  from  forest,  Rs.  12,754. 
Area  occupied  for  cultivation,  118,000 

acres-  Rice  area,  about  49,000  acres. 

Cropped  area,  about  81, coo  acres.  Minor  ciop  area,  about  16  500  acres. 

Total    area   of  tlie    estate,  774  square     Zamindar's  total  contribution  to  Gov- 
mile.s.  erument,  I\s.  6303. 

The  autliority  of  tlie  Kawar  zamlndars  of  Pendra  was 
established  about  1600  A.D.  by  the  Rajas  of  Ratanpur.  The 
traditional  date  of  the  grant  is  Samvat  1533  (/•<'-,  1476  A.D.). 
But  their  genealogical  table,  and  the  firm  and  widely  known 
tradition  that  they  have  held  the  estate  for  1 1  generations, 
make  it  imperative  to  fix  their  first  appointment  at  a  much 
later  date.  The  legendary  beginnings  of  the  family  greatness 
are  recorded  at  length  both  in  Mr.  Chisholm's  account  of 
1867,  and  in  a  lenglliy  report  on  tliis  estate  written  by  the 
Deputy  Commissioner  of  Raipurin  i860  and  preserved  in  his 
office.  The  narrative,  which  tells  how  Hindu  Singh  and 
Chhindu  Singh  found  a  bag  of  money  by  the  roadside  and 
brought  it  untouched  to  the  Raja  of  Ratanpur,  who  in 
recognition  of  their  lionesty  conferred  on  them  the  Pendra 
chaurdsiy  is  somewhat  unconvincing.  The  only  point  of 
interest  is  the  absence  of  all  mention  of  any  previous  holder 
who  was  dispossessed,  or  of  any  signal  military  service  by 
which  the  grant  was  merited. 

There  was  in  ancient  times  long  before  the  days  of 
Hindu  Singh  a  strong  Aryan  settlement  in  this  estate,  as  is 
proved  by  the  presence  of  very  extensive  ruins  at  Dhanpur, 
some  ten  miles  north  of  Pendra  town,  some  account  of  which  is 
given  in  volume  VII  of  General  Cunningham's  Archaeological 
Survey.  The  temples  here,  said  to  be  Jain,  are  assigned  to  a 
period  not  later  than  the  ninth  century  A.D.  Brahmanical 
history   of  course  points  to  these,  as  to  all  o'her  ruins  of 


33^  ZAMINDARtS — I'F.NDRA. 

antiquity,  as  but  aiiotlicr  jjioof  of"  Ilailiaiya  greatness. 
Local  tradition  says  tliat  Dlianpur  and  the  country  both 
above  and  below  the  Konio  Giifit  was  held  at  one  time  by  a 
certain  Raja  Ghughus.  apparently  a  Gond.  A  curious  old 
tank  called  Darsagar  buried  in  the  jungles  of  the  Kenda 
zamlndari  is  also  attributed  to  him,  and  in  Dhanpur  itself  a 
huge  rock  some  20  feet  high  rudely  fashioned  into  human 
shape  is  said  to  be  his  image.  But  both  the  Brahman  stories 
and  the  local  traditions  are  certainly  at  fault.  We  know  from 
inscriptions  that  Komo  was  one  of  the  old  mandalas  or  forts 
of  the  Chedi  kingdom  of  Tripuri.  It  was  from  very  early 
times  therefore  in  the  hands  of  Rajput  chieftains.  And  it 
seems  almost  inevitable  that  one  should  identify  the  head- 
quarters of  this  Konio  niandala  with  the  ancient  town  of 
Dhanpur.  But  the  guarding  of  the  famous  Komo  pass  being 
obviously  the  first  duty  of  the  Dhanpur  chieftain,  this,  the 
better  known  name,  was  naturally  given  to  the  whole  estate. 
Hindu  Singh  never  held  Dhanpur.  He  was  merely  a  creation 
of  the  Ratanpur  Rajas  several  hundred  years  after  their  power 
had  been  established  above  the  Komo  Ghat  by  the  famous 
soldier  Jagapal.  From  Pandriban  or  Pendra  tlindu  Singh's 
family  rapidly  extended  its  influence  over  the  surrounding 
country,  and  within  a  hundred  years  of  his  receiving  the 
chaurdsi  we  find  that  cadets  of  the  same  house  had  established 
themselves  in  Kenda,  Matin  and  Uprora  Here  they  main- 
tained themselves  even  after  the  Maratha  conquest  which 
shortly  followed  their  establishment.  But  in  179S  the 
zamindar  of  Pendra  fell  into  disfavour.  The  old  zamlndars 
of  Nawagarh  and  Mungeli  in  the  plains  had  recently  been 
executed  on  a  suspicion  of  disloyalty,  and  fearing  a  similar 
fate  Pirthi  Singh  of  Pendra  failed  to  attend  when  summoned 
before  the  Subah  at  Ratanpur.  Without  more  ado  his  estate 
was  confiscated  by  Kesho  Govind,  the  Subah,  and  he  himself 
had  to  take  refuge  in  a  '  pilgrimage'  Tlie  estate  was  first 
entrusted  to  a  Gond.  But  in  iSo.|  A.D.  it  appears  that  the 
zamindar    of   Sohagpur    made    an    inroad    into   Pendra  and 


ZAMINDARIS — PENDRA.  337 

succeeded  in  setting  fire  to  the  town.  Dban  Singh,  a  Jamadar 
of  artillery  in  the  Bhonsla's  service,  defeated  the  invaders  and 
was  given  charge  of  the  estate.  But  in  1818  when  Colonel 
Agnew  came  to  Chhattisgarh  he  at  once  restored  Ajit  Singh 
to  his  ancient  heritage.  He  held  that  Pirlhi  Singh,  who  had 
meanwhile  died,  had  been  expelled  '  without  an}'  apparent 
good  cause,'  and,  as  AjIt  Singh  had  been  loyal  to  the  British 
Government  during  the  disturbances  in  Chhattisgarh  at  this 
time,  he  decided  to  repay  his  services  and  at  the  same  time 
win  the  confidence  of  the  general  body  of  zamlndars  by 
restoring  this  old  family  to  its  hereditary  possessions. 

Since  181 8  Pendra  has  enjoyed  the  same  uneventful 
history  and  has  developed  on  the  same  eas}'  lines  as  the  rest 
of  the  Bilaspur  estates.  Throughout  the  Mutiny  the  family 
was  unswervingly  faithful  to  the  British  rule,  and  during  the 
Sohagpur  rebellion  of  1857-58  rendered  good  assistance 
against  their  hereditary  foe.  The  memory  of  this  time  is  still 
fresh  in  the  people's  mind,  and  '  the  ascent  of  Baron  Sahib' 
(Captain  the  Baron  von  Meyern,  who  was  in  charge  of  the 
operations  in  Sohagpur)  affords  a  convenient  fixed  point  in 
dealing  with  local  chronologies.  When  the  Mutin}'  was  over, 
the  sacred  Hill  of  Amarkantak,  formerly  the  extreme  south- 
west corner  of  the  Pendra  zamlndari,  was  handed  over  to  the 
Raja  of  Revvah  in  return  for  his  more  signal  services  on  the 
Government's  behalf.  To  recompense  the  zamlndar  for  this, 
an  annual  remission  of  Rs.  700  from  his  revenue  contribution 
was  sanctioned  in  1859,  and  has  been  enjoyed  by  liim  and  his 
successors  now  for  50  years. 

The  estate  at  the  present  time  is  perhaps  the  most 
attractive  in  the  District,  occupying  the  north-western  corner 
of  the  Bilaspur  tahsil.  It  is  a  wide  plateau  over  700  square 
miles  in  extent.  Though  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the 
Maikal  mountain  range  and  its  offslioots,  it  is  over  2000  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  It  is  the  most  important  watershed  in 
Central  India  and,  besides  the  Ncrbudda  and  Johila,  which 
take  their  rise  on  its  western  border,  tlie  Arpfi  flowing  soutii 


}^S  ZAMINDARIS — PZNDRA. 

and  the  Son  (Icnving  north  connect  it,  in  sentiment  at  least, 
with  the  Mahanaili  and  llie  Ganges.  It  combines  stretches 
of  good  open  country  in  the  north  and  centre  with  stretches 
almost  of  more  value  to  the  zamindar  on  llie  east,  west  and 
south  of  scrj  and  sd/  forests.  The  Bilaspur-Katni  railway 
line  runs  through  the  estate  and  makes  communication  easy 
with  the  outside  world.  Its  construction  involved  luucli 
labour  and  engineering  skill,  and  the  stoi'y  goes  that  more 
than  mere  physical  difficulties  had  to  be  coped  with.  A 
Jogi  and  his  two  huge  serpents  30  cubits  in  length  objected 
to  the  cutting  of  the  Khodri  tunnel,  and  set  a  curse  upon 
the  project,  in  consequence  of  which  the  coolies  working 
on  the  line  were  decimated  by  disease.  The  estate  owing 
to  the  minority  of  the  zamindar  remained  under  the  Court 
of  Wards  from  188 1  to  1901.  Its  finances  are  now  in  a 
very  flourishing  condition.  Fendra  town  is  already  an 
important  trade  centre,  and  under  judicious  management  the 
zamlndari  promises,  in  spite  of  inferior  soils  and  a  backward 
peasantry,  to  rival  before  long  the  prosperity  of  the  kliaisa 
country.  To  those  who  find  an  interest  in  the  fiscal  organ- 
isation of  former  days  the  estate  is  remarkable  as  having, 
alone  among  the  zamindaris  of  Bilaspur,  preserved  into 
recent  times  its  ancient  subdivisions  of  barlions  or  twelve- 
village  groups.  These  were  formerly  ubiquitous,  and  were 
held  by  dependants  of  the  zamlndars,  as  the  zamindars 
themselves  held  from  the  lord  paramount  of  Ratanpur. 
There  are  traces  of  them  in  the  klidlsa  as  well  as  in  all  the 
zamindaris.  But  in  Pendra  the  system  was  in  full  swing  until 
abruptly  broken  up  by  Colonel  Vertue  in  1881,  when  the 
estate  first  came  under  the  Court  of  Wards.  A  full  list  of 
these  old  bar/ions  is  given  in  the  report  of  1  860,  and  the  Bdrali 
gaon  kc  Thdkiir  are  still  well  known  and  recognised  among 
the  Pendra  people  to  the  present  da}'.  The  zamindar  of 
Pendra,  a  young  man  of  27,  died  in  1907,  and  in  the  absence 
of  an  eligible  successor  Government  control  has  had  to  be 
imposed  once  more.     The  estate  contains   two  villages,  viz.^ 


ZAMINDARIS — UPRORA.  339 

Bacharvvar  and  Gaurela  which  have  more  than  lOOO  inhabit- 
ants, besides  Pendrii  itself  with  a  population  of  2457  persons 
This,  the  headquarters  town,  is  5  miles  from  the  Pendra  Road 
station  on  the  Katnl  Branch  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway, 
62  miles  from  Bilaspur.  Fhere  is  a  police  Stationhouse 
at  Pendra  with  a  subordinate  outpost  at  Marwahi  There 
is  a  vernacular  middle  school  at  Pendra,  and  five  primary 
schools  at  Gaurela,  Marwahi,  Parasi,  Bharridand  and  Neosa 
There  is  a  dispensary  at  Pendra,  with  accommodation  for 
four  in-patients.  A  2nd  class  road  runs  from  Pendra  nearly 
as  far  as  Amarkantak,  and  3rd  class  roads  connect  Pendra 
with  Parasi  to  the  north  and  with  Jatanga  to  the  east.  While 
the  estate  was  under  Court  of  Wards'  management  large 
sums  were  spent  on  Public  Works  by  the  ChhattTsgarh  States 
Division  of  the  Public  Works  Department.  A  residence 
was  constructed  for  the  zamlndar  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  47,978, 
while  the  total  expenditure  incurred  on  this  and  similar 
projects  during  the  ten  years  from  1893  to  1903  was 
Rs.  1,32,863.  Of  the  210  villages  in  this  zamlndari  two  are 
held  by  rent-free  assignees,  50  by  inferior  proprietors,  148  by 
thekcddrs,  while  the  remaining  10  are  managed  direct  by  the 
zamlndar.  The  thekeddvs  of  34  villages  have  received  '  pro- 
tected status.' 

Uprora  Zamindari. — Za;nJ//</^r-Rudrasaran  Partab 
Singh,  son  of  Tribhuwan  Prasad  Singh,  by  caste  Tawar, 
by  gotra  Kairav,  aged  12. 

Distinctions—  Seat  in  Darbar  ;  exemption  under  Arms 
Act  ;  title  of  Dlwan  conferred  under  Native  rule. 

l^eir — Adit  Partab  Singh,  son  of  Tribhuwan  Prasad 
Singh,  aged  9. 

Debts— ^W 

Headquarters,  Fondi.  •        Population     of    zamiiulari    in     1901, 

Number  of  villages,  79.  Income  from  viUaRes.  Rs.  3834-1  50. 

Area  of  forest,  about  398  square  miles.   Income  from  forest,  Rs.  4042. 

Area    occupied   for  cultivation,   about     Rice  area  about  5000  nrres. 
8000  acres 


340  ZAMINDARIS  —  UPHORA. 

Cropped  area,  abuul  7500  acres.  Minor  crop  area,  about  2000  acres. 

Total  area  of  estate,  448  square  miles.    Zamindar'.s  total  contribution  to  Gov- 

ernineiit,  Rs.  1506-O-4. 

This  estate  is  also  held  by  a  junior  branch  of  tlic  Pendra 
family,  Jaskaran,  the  son  of  Hindu  Singh  of  Pendra,  had 
two  children  POranmal  and  Churawanmal.  Himniat  Rai,  the 
son  of  Churawanmal,  descended  on  the  Uprora  cliaurdsi 
from  Pendra  and  seized  it,  putting  to  death  a  Brahman  who 
had  previously  held  the  estate.  For  this  offence  he  was 
captured,  it  is  said,  and  thrown  into  prison  by  the  Raja  of 
Ralanpur.  But  a  faithful  follower  of  his,  a  Moharia  Ganda, 
and  by  caste  a  musician,  like  another  Blondel  refused  to 
abandon  his  master  in  captivity.  PJe  went  to  Katanpur  and 
played  outside  the  Raja's  palace  with  such  skill  and  sweetness 
that  the  king  offered  him  any  gift  he  chose  to  name.  Where- 
upon he  secured  the  release  of  Himmat  Rai,  who  was  also 
permitted  to  retain  his  ill-gotten  estates.  Himmat  Rai's 
traditional  date  is  Samvat  1641  (A.  D.  1584),  but  following 
the  dates  indicated  by  the  Pendra  genealogy  he  cannot  have 
lived  much  before  AD.  1675.  Between  Himmat  Rai  and 
the,  present  holder  of  the  estate  13  generations  are  said  to 
have  elapsed,  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  several  of  these  have 
been  interpolated. 

Uprora  is  the  wildest  and  least  accessible  of  all  the 
Bilaspur  zamlndaris.  It  lies  in  the  extreme  north-east  of 
the  District  in  the  uplands  of  the  Vindhya  range,  behind 
the  Chhuri  and  Korba  zamlndaris.  It  is  448  square  miles 
in  extent,  and  is  nearly  the  same  size  as  the  Pandaria  zamin- 
dari  but,  except  for  sonie  30  villages  to  the  south-west,  it  is  a 
mass  of  hill  and  forest  broken  only  by  occasional  clearings. 
The  aspect  of  the  tract  is  that  of  a  vast  mountain  wilderness, 
range  after  range  of  hills  succeeding  each  other,  the  interven- 
ing valleys  sometimes  covered  with  forest,  at  others  compa- 
ratively open  and  clear.  Some  of  them  are  dotted  with 
villages  but  in  most  cases  the  hamlets  are  isolated  and  apart. 
The  pressure  of  population  at  the  last  census  was  only  14  to 


ZAMINDARIS — UPRORA.  341 

the  square  mile.  To  the  east  of  the  estate  stands  the  Binalta 
hill  rising  to  nearly  4000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 
top  of  this  hill  forms  a  tableland  8  or  9  square  miles  in 
extent,  well  supplied  with  water,  and  was,  at  any  rate  in 
former  days,  a  grazing  ground  for  numerous  herds  of  bison. 
The  northern  half  of  the  zamindari  still  continues  to  be 
a  favourite  resort  of  wild  elephant.  An  old  trade  route 
between  Ratanpur  and  Mirzapur  ran  through  the  west  of  the 
estate  before  the  railway  was  opened.  It  is  at  present 
little  used.  The  Hasdo  river,  which  forms  during  part  of 
its  course  the  boundary  between  Uprora  and  Matin,  finally 
breaks  eastward  across  the  former  zamindari  towards  Chhuri 
and  Korba.  It  has  a  few  tributaries  of  local  importance. 
Communications  generally  are  defective.  The  estate  has 
never  been  under  Court  of  Wards.  The  zamindar's  man- 
agement is  slack,  and  little  is  done  to  rescue  the  estate  from 
being,  as  it  is  at  present,  by  far  the  most  backward  of  the 
Bilaspur  zamlndaris.  The  forest  tribes  are  numerous  in 
this  country,  the  best  known  of  whom  are  the  Korwas  and 
Saontas.  There  are  no  villages  in  the  estate  which  have 
more  than  lOOO  inhabitants.  The  village  of  Uprora  has  a 
population  of  only  85  There  are  no  schools.  There  is  a 
police  outpost  at   Pondi.     Of  the  79    villages  in   the  estate, 

5  are  held  by  inferior  proprietors,  45  by  ihckedars  of  whom 

6  have  obtained  protected  status,  while  the  remaining  29  are 
managed  directly  by  the  zamlndar.  The  zamlndar  is  a 
minor  and  it  is  intended  to  take  his  estate  under  the 
management  of  the  Court  of  Wards. 


Printed  at  the  l^ioneer  Press,  by  F.  W.  Shipway,  No.  1410. — 13-6-10' 


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